Area : 38,863 sq.km / 15,005 sq. miles
Population : 318.38 lakhs(2001Census) (3.34 % of total population of India)
Land Mass : 1.18 % area of total land.
Capital : Trivandrum
Language : Malayalam
Literacy : 100% (app)
Climate : Tropical
Clothing : Light cottons
Geographical Position : The land lies between 80 18' North Latitude and between 740 52' and 770 24' East Longitude.
Border : East: Western Ghat Mountains, west:: Arabian Sea, South: Tamil Nadu and North: Karnataka
Rivers : : 44
Longest River - Bharathapuzha (251.1 Km)
Highest Mountain - Anamudi (2652.3 Metres)
Climate - Summer - 35 to 22.5 degrees C Winter - 32 to 20 degrees.
History : Kerala had become a Linguistically distinct region in 14th century
First Recorded Kingdom: Empire Chera Ruled Kerala from Vanchi.
Between 8th and 14th century -Malayalam is developed as a language under Chera Empire-II.
Kerala was first mentioned in the Sanskrit epic Aitareya Aranyaka.
Early Trading centres: Evidence shown Arabs from 8th century, Portuguese in 1498, The dutch and Britishers from 16th and 17th centuries establish trade centres with Kerala. Cranganore, Quilon, Alleppey, Cannanore and Cochin are major ports used for trading.
Time : GMT +5.30
Currency : Indian Rupee
No.of Districts : 14
Taluks : 63
Revenue Villages : 1452
City Corporations : 5
Grama Panchayat : 991
Block Panchayat : 152
District Panchayat :14
Sex Ratio :1058 women for 1000 men
Infant Mortality Rate :14
Birth Rate :18
Death Rate :6.4
Literacy Rate :90.92 percent
Total No.of Schools :12318
Higher Education Universities :7
Arts & Science colleges :186
Political particulars MLA's : 141
MP's : ( Loksabha : 20, Rajyasabha : 9)
Special Features :
First literate state of India
First state to implement land reform bills and education reform bills
Lower birth rate
Least infant mortality
State with maximum life expectancy
The only state with the facilities of hospitals in every village
Excellent communication infrastructure.
One among the states where Air, Water and Road are used as the media for transportation.
The mythological story about Kerala was a land rose from the sea where the axe- landed thrown in penance for waging the terrible war by Parasuram, the 6th incarnation of Lord Vishnu, who massacre the evil kings 21 times over to repeal their force from earth.
In written records, Kerala was first mentioned in the Sanskrit epic Aitareya Aranyaka The 10th century BC ,speakers of the north-western India belong to Tamil language, shown the evidence that ancient Kerala and Tamil Nadu was part of Tamilakam and also onces shared a common language, tradition and culture. By the early 14th century, Kerala had become a linguistically independent region.
The first ever ruler of Kerala recorded was the king Chera, ruled from Vanchi. A Keralite got identity when they distinct from the Tamils and associated with the second Chera empire and the development of Malayalam as their language during 14th century.
The Chera kings' dependence on trade meant that merchants from West Asia established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala. A fresh wave of trading history started with the Europeans: Conflicts between the cities of Kozhikode (Calicut) and Kochi (Cochin) allowed the Dutch to oust the Portuguese. Meanwhile, Mysore's Hyder Ali conquered northern Kerala, capturing Kozhikode in 1766. In the late 18th century, Tipu Sultan-Ali's son and successor-launched campaigns against the expanding British East India Company but altmately he surrended to British in 1790s. From then the British traders had become the strongest power in India by that time. In all this period of prosperity and strife, the region's identity existed as the Malabar Coast and Cochin Travancore. It was in 1949 that the three territories were integrated and in 1956 that it gained recognition as an independent state, Kerala.
Kerala also known as celestial land [God's own country] for its natural beauty and from centuries also known as planter plantations lies on the coast of southwestern India. Kerala has an area of 38,862 Km and divided into 14 major districts, which have got its unique culture and traditions. Kerala has developed as one of the major tourism destination in recent time.
Geography
Kerala is located on the southwestern tip of India with the Arabian Sea on the west and Western Ghats towering 500-2700m on the east. The State is divided into three regions - the coastal lowlands, the fertile midlands and the highlands. The lowland of Kerala is a costal belt relatively flat and are networked by endless backwaters and the deltas of forty-four rivers. The midland is made up of undulating hills and valleys. This area is rich with cashew, coconut, arecanut, tapioca, banana, rice, ginger, pepper, sugarcane and vegetable plantations. The forested high lands slope down from western ghats which rise to an avarage height of 900 meter with a number of peaks over 1500 meter in height. This is an area abound in tea, coffee, rubber and spice plantations and wildlife reserves.
Geographically Kerala has divided into three major tourist regions such as 1] Northern region 2] central region 3] southern region. .
Malabar (northern Kerala), Kochi (central Kerala), and Travancore (southern Kerala).
The north region known as Malabar consist of : (Kasargod, Kannur, Wayanad, Kozhikode, Malappuram, Palakkad)
" The centre region known as Kochi consist of : (Thrissur, Ernakulam)
" The Southern region Travancore: consist of (Idukki, Alappuzha, Kottayam, Pathanamthitta, Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram)
Climate :
Kerala, which lies in the tropics, is mostly subject to the type of humid tropical wet climate experienced by most of Earth's rainforests. Meanwhile, its extreme eastern fringes experience a drier tropical wet and dry climate. Kerala receives an average annual rainfall of 3107 mm - some 7,030 crore m3 of water. This compares to the all-India average is 1,197 mm. Parts of Kerala's lowlands may average only 1250 mm annually while the cool mountainous eastern highlands of Idukki district - comprising Kerala's wettest region - receive in excess of 5,000 mm of orographic precipitation (4,200 crore of which are available for human use) annually. Kerala's rains are mostly the result of seasonal monsoons. As a result, Kerala averages some 120-140 rainy days per year. In summers, most of Kerala is prone to gale-force winds, storm surges, and torrential downpours accompanying dangerous cyclones coming in off the Indian Ocean. Kerala's average maximum daily temperature is around 36.7 °C; the minimum is 19.8 °C.
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Saturday, 26 July 2008
MALAYALAM CINEMA -A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT
Cinema is the popular art form that has proved itself to be a good entertainer and a strong means of mass communication in Kerala since the last century. It has the elements of different art forms including architecture and sculpture in it.
Moreover, Malayalam films have their own existence in Kerala and is the most popular form of art enjoyed by the masses. Hence cinema has its own influence on their culture.
The viewers in Kerala enjoy the films while comprehending the reality in it. They possess a high degree of insight and intuition and distinguish reality from fiction in the themes of experimentalism. Malayalam Cinema has contributed much to the creative and critical analysis sectors of Malayalam literature.
Kerala has a very rich art and cultural background. Its films are unique in several aspects. Unlike the other linguistic films, which have started off taking themes from the Puranas, Malayalam films have taken relevant social issues as its theme from the beginning.
The Beginning
The first cinema hall in Kerala was established in Trichur by K.W.Joseph in 1907 and it had a manually operated film projector. The first electrically operated film projector too was established in Trichur by Jose Kattukkaran in 1913 and was called the 'Jose Electrical Bioscope'. Soon such cinema halls were established in other major cities of Kerala. At the initial stage only Tamil, Hindi and English films were exhibited in these theatres; it was, however, Tamil cinema, which dominated Kerala. The Malayalee audience welcomed Tamil films because of the cultural similarities between the two states.
The first Malayalam movie was released in 1928. It was a silent film titled Vigathakumaran, produced and directed by a businessman, J. C. Daniel who had no prior film experience. However this film was a commercial failure . The second film Marthanda Varma, produced by B V Rao in 1933 was based on a novel by C. V. Raman Pillai. But it was never released due to some legal issues.
Balan released in 1938 was the first talkie in Malayalam. It was produced at Chennai (then Madras) in the neighbouring state of Tamilnadu by S Nottani . Malayalam movies continued to be made almost exclusively by Tamil producers till 1947 when the first major film studio, Udaya was established in Kerala. With this more Keralites entered the field of films.
The progress of production of Malayalam films was very slow during the next few years. One film each was produced in 1940, 1941, 1948 and 1949
Successful Malayalam Cinemas of the Early Period
Jeevithanouka (The boat of life)
Jeevithanouka (1951) was a turning point for Malayalam cinema. This highly dramatic musical film, which narrated the story of ego clashes in a joint family, was mainly directed towards the women audience. Jeevithanouka was a huge success, and can be considered as the first 'super hit' of Malayalam cinema. Thikkurishi Sukumaran Nair, an actor from the stage, became the first 'superstar' of Malayalam cinema after the success of the film. But this success had also an adverse effect on Malayalam cinema. Films that were produced after Jeevithanouka were made according to this success formula, and nothing creative was seen for a long time. Superstars took over the driver's seat and directors were forced to the background
Neelakuyil
Neelakuyil (The Blue Cuckoo)
Through Neelakuyil (1954) Malayalam cinema for the first time had an authentic Malayalam story. The story for Neelakuyil was penned by renowned Malayalam writer Uroob and directed by the duo of P Bhaskaran and Ramu Karyat. This melodramatic film dealt with the issue of untouchability in the society. Satyan and Miss Kumari were elevated to stardom after the huge success of this film. Malayalam film music which till then were cheap imitations of Hindi and Tamil film music, also came up with original Malayalam tunes through this film. K Rghavan arranged the lyrics written by P Bhaskaran. The music scored for the movie was to a great extent influenced by the Malayalam folk music and the tunes were an instant hit among the masses. This was also the first Malayalam film to be shot outdoors. Neelakuyil heralded the arrival of a mature Malayalam cinema on the Indian film world.
Newspaper Boy (1955) was the reflection of neo-realism in cinema, which became popular all over the world. This film was a result of extreme hard work by a group of college students. P Ramadas, who was totally new to cinema, directed newspaper Boy and almost all technical works were handled by amateur students. This film was released a few months before Satyajith Ray's classic- Pather Panchali hit the silver screens. Newspaper Boy narrates the sad story of a printing press employee and his family reeling under extreme poverty. He dies of extreme poverty and illness, which forces his children to stop their education. His elder son Appu leaves for Madras in search of a job. Failing to secure a job there, he returns and decides to take up the job of a newspaper boy.
The Growth: 1960s
After the success of Neelakuyil, films with authentic Malayalam stories set in the backdrop of Kerala villages, started arriving. Minnaminingu directed by Ramu Karyat and Rarichhan enna Pouran by P Bhaskaran were noted films produced during the late 1950s. Takazhi Shivashankara Pillai's famous novel Randidangazhi was also seen on the silver screen.
In 1961 Kandam Bacha Coat, the first full-length colour film in Malayalam was released and was an adoption of a famous social drama. Bhargavi Nilayam (1964) directed by A Vincent is a notable film of this period. This was a cinematic adoption of renowned Malayalam writer Vykom Muhammad Basheer's novel. Vincent also directed some of the best films of early ages like Murapennu, Nagarame Nandi, Asuravithu and Thulabharam. Irutinte Athmavu directed by P Bhaskaran, based on M T Vasudevan Nair's story, gave a new face to superstar Prem Nazir, who till then was seen only in romantic hero's role.
Chemmeen
Chemmeen (Prawn)
Chemmeen (1965) directed by Ramu Karyat was the first South Indian film to bag the President's Golden Lotus Award for the best film. Based on a famous novel with the same name by renowned Malayalam writer Takazhi Shivashanakara Pillai, Chemmeen pioneered the growth of Malayalam cinema in technical and artistic aspects. It brought together some of the best technical talents then available in India, Salil Chowdhari (music), Markes Burtly (cinematography) and Hrishikesh Mukhargee (editing). It also had a huge star cast.
Post-Chemmeen Era
Ramu Karyat
The post-Chemmeen Malayalam cinema arena saw an upsurge in quality films, mainly based on literary works of some of the best writers of Kerala. After Chemmeen, Ramu Karyat directed Ezhu Rathrikal which narrated the story of the down trodden. The renowned Malayalam writer M T Vasudevan Nair made his film debut by writing screenplay for Murapennu. Directed by A Vincent, Murapennu was a landmark film. Oolavum Theeravum by P N Menon announced the revolutionary changes Malayalam cinema was about to witness in the early 1970s. A new generation of filmmakers who realized the uniqueness of the language of this medium, ventured into a different kind of cinema.
The Malayalam New Wave
Adoor Gopalakrishnan
The growth of film society movement and the screenings of world classics forced a drastic change in Malayalee film sensitivity during the early 1970s. A new movement often termed as the 'New Wave Malayalam Cinema' or the 'Malayalam Parallel Cinema' emerged. Adoor Gopalakrishnan made his first film Swayamvaram in 1972, which made Malayalam cinema noticed at International film arena. G Aravindan through his Uttarayanam in 1974 accelerated this radical change in Malayalam cinema.
Another major stream of Malayalam cinema that appeared during the 1970s, which was a synthesis of the highly commercial popular cinema and the parallel cinema from which the masses always stayed away, was the 'middle-stream cinema'. These films, mainly from directors like K G George, Padmarajan and Bharathan, had meaningful themes but had popular forms of presentation and had influenced a generation of film viewers.
Golden Age of Malayalam cinema
Most critics and audiences consider the period from (late 1980s to early 1990s) as the golden age of Malayalam cinema. The Malayalam cinema of this short but beautiful period is a culmination of the malayali ethos and south Indian life. It is characterised by detailed screenplays, excellently directed by master-directors, dealing with everyday life with a lucid narration of plot intermingling with humor and melancholy. This was aided by brilliant cinematography and lighting as in motion pictures like Perumthachan (1990), directed by Ajayan with Santosh Sivan as the cinematographer. While the movies were made expressive with warm background music by composers like Johnson, as in the motion picture Nammukku paarkkaan munthiri thoppukal (1986) directed by Padmarajan.
Many of the movies released during this time narrowed the gap between art cinemas and commercial cinemas in the Malayalam film industry, as in Oru Vadakkan Veeragatha (1989). These were paralleled with movies like Kireedam (1989) directed by Sibi Malayil and written by Lohitadas, Mathilukal directed by Adoor gopalakrishnan (1989), 'Amaram'(1991) directed by Bharathan and 'Sargam'(1992) directed by Hariharan.
The period had an abundance of movies rich in creative humour from directors like Priyadarshan, Akkare akkare akkare (1990) and Sathyan Anthicad, Nadodikkattu (1987). The era also saw well crafted comedy by the Duo Siddique-Lal, (Ramji Rao speaking (1989)) and In Harihar Nagar (1990). Other notable contributions of this period include His Highness Abdullah (1990) directed by Sibi Malayil, Piravi (1989) by Shaji N. Karun, Abhayam (1991) directed by Sivan, and the motion picture Daisy (1988) an expressi
Malayalam cinema in the first half of 1990s
Later movies followed in the essence of the golden period but lacked in freshness. However they still stand out for their brilliance in storytelling and appeal. These include 'Bharatham' (1991) by Sibi Malayil, Kaalapaani (1996) by Priyadarshan, and the award winning 'Manichitrathazhu' (1993) by Fazil. 'Sphadikam' (1995) directed by Bhadran was well received by the viewers as was 'Desadanam' (1997) by Jayaraaj. Some works stood out as strong in evocative power reminiscent of the earlier period, like Swaham (1994) directed by Shaji N.Karun the first malayalam film entry to the Competition in cannes international Film Festival in 1994.
Current Scenario (late 1990s - mid 2000s)
Shaji N Karun
After the early 1990s the quality of Malayalam cinema declined. Partly due to the arrival of satellite digital television and film piracy and partly due to the changing interests of the audience. The movies in current period is largely nonsensical comedies primarily aiming at large scale entertainment without much artistic message. These movies include Meesamadhavan (2002) by Lal Jose and Kunjikkoonan directed by Sasi Shankar (2002). However notable exceptions to these were the motion pictures Chinthavishtayaya Shyamala by Srinivasan (1998) and Vanaprastham (1999) directed by Shaji N Karun. Also Narasimham the highest-grossing Malayalam movie as of 2005 was relased during this period, in 2000.
Here comes the place for Jayaraj who acts double role in Direction as at the same time when he receive national awards by running in the tracks of Art films, he makes sincere try to set new trends in malayalam cinema by directing films like “..For the people”.
This is the period where two sequels of previously notable movies came out Mohanlal's Ravanaprabhu the second part of Devasuram and Mammotty's Sethuramayyar CBI the third part of Oru CBI Dairykurippu. Udayananu Tharam, a blockbuster and a trend-setter, was jointly released by the Mohanlal and Sreenivasan.
This period witnessed the migration of Malayalam film technicians to participate in other language films. Among them were Priyadarshan, Santosh Sivan, Sabu Cyril, Ravi K. chandran, Sreekar Prasad and others
Music
Yesudas
In the initial years, the lyricists used to write songs according to the tunes of popular Hindi and Tamil songs. However, the arrival of popular poets like P. Bhaskaran (1950), O.N.V. Kurup (1955), Vayalar Rama Varma (1956) and brilliant music directors like V.Dakshinamurthy (1950), K. Raghavan (1954), G.Devarajan (1955) and M.S. Babu Raj (1957) on the scene changed the scenario.
This welcome trend was followed by poets like Sreekumaran Thampy and Yusaf Ali Kecheri. Among the early playback singers were Kanukara Purushothaman, K.P. Udayabhanu and A.M. Raja. Popular female playback singers included P. Leela, Santha P.Nair, P. Susheela and Janaki.
Even though A.M. Raja, P. Susheela and Janaki hailed from Andhra Pradesh, Malayalis had no hesitation in accepting them as Kerala's own singers. Later on many such singers from outside Kerala, like Manna Dey, Talat Mehmood, Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhonsle and S.P. Balasubramanian lent their voice to Malayalam films. Even music directors like Naushad, Usha Khanna, Ravi Bombay and Ilaya Raja from other states composed music for Malayalam films.
The uncrowned king of Malayalam playback singers, Yesudas, continues to be the most popular singer of Kerala even at the age of 58 and has, in fact, become a living legend.
Now with the new hip shaking music, Jassie Gift is a passion among the young bloods.
Eminent Directors
Adoor Gopalakrishnan who appeared on the scene with Chitralekha Film Society, directed the film "Swayam Varam' in 1972. Later, he made 'Kodiyettam', 'Elipathayam', 'Mukha Mukham', 'Mathilukal', 'Vidheyan', and 'Katha Purushan', which won national and international acclaim.
Aravindan was another important film director, who started his career with the film 'Utharayanam'. His other films'Kanjana Seetha', 'Thampu', Kummatti', 'Esthapan', 'Pokku Veyil', and 'Chidambaram' also won universal recognition.
M.T. Vasudevan Nair's directorial venture 'Nirmalyam' won national honours. Most of the films scripted by him were masterpieces, like 'Vaisali', 'Oru Vadakkan Veeragatha', 'Perumthachan', and 'Parinayam'.
I V Sasi entered the film industry by directing a small budget film with Ummer as the lead, Ulsavam (1975), which became a commercial success. He continued this success in most of his later films, Angadi (1980), Ee nadu, Meen, Trishna (1981), Mi>Ragam, Anubandham (1985), Vartha and Avanazhi (1986) being some of his notable films.
Fazil is considered as the biggest money-spinning director of present day Malayalam film industry. He started his career with the film Manjil virinja pookal, which introduced Mohan Lal who later became a super star of Malayalam cinema. Ente Mamatikuttiammakku, Nokatha doorathu kannum nattu, Pappayude swantham Appus, Aniathipravu and Harikrishnans are some of his commercially successful films.
Balachandra Menon, who entered Malayalam cinema in the 70s is miraculously surviving even today, and has even won a National Film award for best actor. Menon makes his films almost single handedly, looking after direction, editing, writing, music direction and so on. Tharatu, Kelkatha shabdam, Karyam nisaram, Samantharangal and Krishna Gopalakrishna are some of his major films.
Srinivasan who entered the cinema industry as an actor later proved his talent in writing screenplays and also direction. The two films he directed, Vadakkunoki yantram and Chintavistayaya Shyamala could be considered among the best commercial films ever produced in Malayalam. These films had in-depth study of middle class family relationships and also human psychology.
Now it is Mr. Blessy doing the trick and his two films yet has given his own identity. His two pictures, kaazhcha and Thanmatra are big hits. And he is writing a new formula to invite the family to the cinemas.
Among other important film directors are Padmarajan, Bharathan, Shaji N. Karun, Sibi Malayil, K.G. George, T.V. Chandran, K.R. Mohanan, Lenin Rajendran, Pridyadarshan, and John Abraham
Actors and Actresses
Prem Nazir
Thikkurisi Sukumaran Nair was a father figure of Malayalam films. He was a script writer, lyricist, director and versatile actor. The heroes who ruled over Malayalam film kingdom were Sathyan and Prem Nazir. Raghavan, Sudheer, Vincent, Sukumaran and M.G. Soman came later. Some of the popular heroes of the present day are Mohan Lal, Mammutty and Suresh Gopy, Jayaram and Mukesh . Among the earlier notable heroines were Padmini, Madhu, Ragini, Sheela, Sarada and Jaya Bharati. Then came Ambika, Menaka, Manisha, Sobhana, Manju Warrier and Divya Unny.
There has been no dearth of brilliant character actors and comedians in Malayalam films. The very concept of romantic hero was shattered to pieces by the appearance of Gopi as the hero in 'Kodiyettam'.
Governmental Support
The State Government has instituted annual film awards, and provided concessions in the form of tax exemption for deserving films, and subsidy and package programmes for films shot in studios. The State-owned Chitranjali Studio has all facilities. A State Film Academy has just been started to help the film industry in the State.
Central Board of Film Certification and the National Film Archives of India, Pune, have their Regional Offices at Trivandrum. The Films Division and the National Film Development Corporation also have branch offices at Trivandrum. The State Government owns three theatres in the capital city and a few in other towns.
In addition to the Kerala Film Chambers, film artistes have an association called 'AMMA' and film technicians have an organisation called 'MACTA'. These organisations look after the interests of the film industry in Kerala. There are a number of popular journals in Malayalam.
National Recognition
Some of the best films in India have been produced in Malayalam. National awards for the best film were won by 'Chemmeen'(1965), 'Swayamvaram' ( 1972), 'Nirmalyam'(1973), 'Chidambaram' ( 1985), 'Piravai' ( 1988), and 'Kathaporushan'. Malayalam film actors P J Antony, Balan K Nair, Gopi Premji, Mammutty, Mohan Lal, Suresh Gopi and Balachandra Menon have won national awards for best acting, while Sarada, Monisha and Sobhana bagged best actress awards. Yesudas, Jayachandran and Chitra have won best singer awards and Vayalar and O.N.V. Kurup , best lyricist award at the national level. Aranmula Ponnamma, Santha Devi, Nedumudi Venu and Tilakan have also won national awards in acting. Best cameraman awards were won by Santhosh Sivan, Mankada Ravi Varma and Venu while Sound recording awards were won by Devadas and Krishna Unni.
Children's films like 'My Dear Kuttichathan', 'Kummatti' 'Manu Uncle' and 'Kochaniyan' have won national awards. The awards for the Best Director were won by Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Aravindan, Shaji, T.V. Chandran and Jayaraj.
Many persons working in this field are men of eminence. Prem Nazir was a recipient of Padma Bhushan Award and Thikkurissai had received Padma Sree. Padma Sree was also conferred on Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Gopi, O.N.V. Kurup, and Mammutty. M.T. Vasudevan Nair is a Gyan Pith Award winner. Even though Cable TV has made strong inroads in Kerala, the number of theatre audience has not shown any significant decline. Malayalam films have come a long way since 1928 by providing wholesome entertainment and meaningful cinema to its viewers.
Monday, 7 July 2008
HISTORY OF KERALA
History of Kerala
¤ Kerala History Dates Back To Mauryan Empire
The first recorded history of Kerala appears in the inscriptions of the Mauryan Emperor, Ashoka (269-232 b.c.).In these inscriptions, Ashoka refers to four independent kingdoms that lay to the south of his empire. These were the kingdoms of the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Keralaputrasand the Satiyaputras.Among them, the Keralaputras or the Cheras, as they were called, reigned over Malabar, Cochin and North Travancore – all part of present-day Kerala. They managed to maintain their independence because they were on good terms with the Great Maurya. Otherwise, Ashoka, who was a great empire builder, would surely have attempted to bring these kingdoms under his tutelage.
The four South Indian Kingdoms extended a hand of friendship towards the Mauryas. It was really Hobson’s choice for them, having already experienced the Mauryan onslaught during the reign of Ashoka’s predecessor, Bindusara (297-272 b.c.)
¤ The Sangam Age
Information about the Cheras during the Mauryan times is very scarce. It is only in the Sangam Age that the history of Kerala emerges from myths and legends. The Sangam Age refers to the period during which Sangam literature was composed. Sangam literally means academy and these great works in Tamil were written in the first four centuries of the Christian era.
Tradition has it that the first three academies met at Madurai and were attended by kings and poets.
However, the literature composed at the First Sangam is no longer extant.
History of Shankaracharya
Tolkappiyam : The earliest work on Tamil grammar, was composed during the Second Sangam.
Ettutogai : The Third Sangam produced a remarkable collection of Tamil literature known as Ettutogai (“Eight Anthologies”). These anthologies give us a detailed description of the political, social and economic conditions of that period.
¤ The Chera Kingdom
The Sangam Age witnessed three political powers ruling the area which now constitutes the State of Kerala. These were the Ays in the south, the Cheras in Central Kerala and Ezhimalas to the north. The Ays established a kingdom which in its halcyon days, extended from Tiruvalla in the north to Nagercoil in the south. Antiran, Titiyam and Atiyan were the most prominent of the Ay rulers.
The Ezhimalas too ruled over an extensive area that covers the present Kannur and Wynad districts of North Kerala. However, the Cheras were the most conspicuous of the dynasties and founded a powerful kingdom in Kerala.
The first Chera ruler was Perumchottu Utiyan Cheralatan – a contemporary of the great Chola, King Karikalan. After suffering a humiliating defeat at the hands of the Chola ruler at the battle of Venni, he committed suicide.
His son, Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralatan, another important Chera ruler, succeeded him. During his long rule of 58 years, Imayavaramban Nedun Cheralatan consolidated the Chera Dynasty and extended its frontiers. He inflicted a crushing defeat on his sworn enemies, the Kadambas of Banavasi (see Uttar Kannad for details). Imayavaramban’s reign is of special significance to the development of art and literature. Kannanar was his poet laureate.
However, the greatest Chera King was Kadalpirakottiya Vel Kelu Kuttuvan, who is also identified with the mythical hero of the Silappadigaram (The Jewelled Anklet). Silappadigaram is one of the three great Tamil epics of the Sangam Age. The other two are Manimegalai and Sivaga-Sindamani. The great Tamil poet, Paranar, refers to his military exploits including his famous victory at Mogur Mannan and Kongar. Kuttuvan was the proponent of the Patni (wife) cult. The cult emphasised the utter devotion of a wife towards her husband. He dedicated a temple at Vanchi to Kannagi (the female protagonist of Silappadigaram), and the present Kurumba Bhagavati Temple at Kodungallur (Cranganore) is modelled on it. Kannagi’s devotion towards her husband was legendary. Recently, the Indian Government has instituted an award in her memory, which is given to the women.
¤ Kalabhra Interregnum
After the Sangam Age, Kerala passed through a dark period that lasted four centuries. This era is known as the ‘Kalabhra Interregnum’. At the end of the eighth centurya.d., South Indian kingdoms such as the Pallavas, the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas and the Pandyas succeeded in overthrowing the Kalabhras.
¤ Shankaracharya – The Great Theologian
It is a paradox that Buddhism disappeared (until its revival in recent years) from the land of its origin. One of the main reasons for this development was that a revived and reformed Hinduism began to emerge after the sixth century a.d.
In the eighth century, this reform movement was led by Adi Shankaracharya, whose position with respect to Hinduism is similar to that of St. Thomas Aquinas in the Roman Catholic Church. He travelled the length and breadth of India and got the better of many Buddhist missionaries in public discourses. Kalady, situated 25 kilometres northeast of Cochin, was the birthplace of Shankaracharya. A great philosopher and theologian, he propagated the advaita (monism) philosophy, which is also known as kevaladvaita (strict monism). Shankaracharya was also a great organiser. His missionary zeal was best exemplified in his establishment of four mathas (Hindu monastic establishments) in the four corners of the country. These are located at Sringeri in Karnataka, Dwarka in Gujarat, Puri in Orissa and Badrinath in Uttar Pradesh. Shankaracharya died at the young age of 32.
History of Kerala¤ The Second Chera Empire
Just after the eclipse of the Kalbhras, the Second Chera Empire made its appearance in the annals of Kerala history. Mahodyapuram (modern Kodangallur) was its capital. It was founded by Kulasekhara Alvar (a.d. 800-820), one of the 12 Alvars. Alvars were Tamil saints who composed and sang hymns in praise of Vishnu (The Preserver in the Hindu Holy Trinity of Creator-Preserver-Destroyer). They were exponents of the Bhakti (devotional) cult in South India. The Alvars gave a great impetus to the Bhakti cult in South India between the seventh and the 10th centuries. Kulasekhara Alvar was a scholar and a great patron of the arts. He composed five dramas – the Perumal Tirumozhi in Tamil, and Mukundamala, Tapatisamvarna, Subhadradhamala and Vichchinnabhiseka – all in Sanskrit, which testify to his scholarship.
¤ Rajasekhara Varman Rul (a.d. 820-44)
(succeeded Kulasekhara Alvar. He founded the ‘Kollam Era’ of Kerala, which began in a.d. 825. He is also reputed to have issued the Vazhappali Inscription, the first epigraphical record of the Chera Kingdom. Rajasekhara Varma was followed by Sthanu Ravi Varman (a.d. 844-55), a contemporary of the Chola King, Aditya I (a.d. 870-906).
The Tillaisthanam Inscription indicates that he was on friendly terms with the Chola monarch. His reign witnessed a flourishing trade between Kerala and China. This is borne out by the Arab merchant Sulaiman who visited India in a.d. 851. His first love was astronomy and Sankaranarayana, who composed the astronomical work Sankaranarayaniyam, adorned his court.
After Rajasekhara’s death, hostilities broke out between the Cheras and the Cholas, which continued until the disintegration of the Chera Kingdom. The Pandyas of the Madurai also involved themselves in the conflict.
Rama Varma Kulasekhara (a.d. 1090-1102) was the last of the Chera Kings. He shifted his capital to Quilon when the Cholas sacked Mahodyapuram during his reign. His death signalled the atomisation of the Chera Empire, from the ruins of which arose the independent kingdom of Venad.
¤ The Venad Kingdom
After the fall of the Kulasekharas, Venad emerged as an independent power. The kingdom reached its zenith under Udaya Marthanda Varma (1175-1195) and Ravi Varma Kulasekhara (1299-1314). An efficient ruler, Udaya Marthanda Varma was the architect of a brilliant administrative system for temples. The copper plates, which he issued during his rule, and which were called the Kollur Madham Plates and the Tiruvambadi Inscription of1183, testify to this fact.
Ravi Varma Kulasekhara was the most important ruler of the dynasty. He was a brave and active warrior. He brought peace and order to the strife-torn Pandya Empire, after Malik Kafur, lieutenant of the Delhi Sultan, Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296-1315), ravaged it. His reign saw the development of art and learning. A scholar and musician himself, he patronised intellectuals and poets during his tenure. The Sanskrit drama Pradyumnabhyudayam is ascribed to him. Trade and commerce also flourished during his rule and Quilon became a famous centre of business and enterprise.
After the death of Ravi Varma Kulasekhara, the history of the Venad Kingdom is not of special interest. The kingdom lingered on until the middle of the 18th century before it disintegrated.
¤ Emergence of Calicut
During the medieval period, Calicut rose to prominence from the ashes of the mighty Kulasekhara Empire, in the northern part of Kerala. The Zamorins (literally Lord of the Sea) were the hereditary rulers of Calicut who traced their lineage to the old Perumal dynasty of Kerala. Calicut emerged as a major seaport during the reign of the Zamorins.
Trade with foreigners like the Chinese and Arabs was the main source of revenue for the Zamorins. But it was the Arabs who managed to establish stronger trade links with the rulers of Calicut. Art and culture flourished under the Zamorins who were great patrons of literature.
Accounts of travellers like Ibn Batuta (1342-47), Ma Huan, the Chinese scholar, Abdur Razzak (1443), Nicolo Conti (1444) and Athanasius Nikitin (1468-74) corroborate this fact. Not content with the size of their kingdom, the Zamorins set about expanding its boundaries. The powerful Zamorins conquered Beypore, Parappanad, Vettat, Kurumbranad, Nilambur, Manjeri, Malappuram, Kottakal and Ponnai. By the 15th century, clashes between Cochin and Calicut became increasingly frequent. The reigning Zamorin emerged as the undisputed monarch of the North Malabar area, extending up to Pantalayani Kollam.
¤ The Europeans Arrive
The arrival of Vasco da Gama at Calicut in 1498, was a landmark event in the annals of history. At that time, Kerala was in the throes of political turmoil. Although the Portuguese did not enjoy cordial relations with the Zamorin, they succeeded in procuring some trading facilities at Quilon and Cannanore. But the Portuguese were intent on stopping the Arabs from trading with India.
Hostilities between Cochin and Calicut were exacerbated because the Raja of Cochin acted as a willing supporter of the Portuguese. However, the Zamorin faced a crushing defeat at the hands of the Portuguese when they laid siege on Cochin. The Portuguese gained permission to fortify Cochin and Cranganore in 1503 and 1504, respectively.
After Vasco da Gama, the most notable Portuguese to set foot on Indian soil, was Albuquerque. He managed to make peace with the Zamorin. A treaty was signed in 1513, which gave the Portuguese the right to construct a fort in Cochin and to carry on trade. However, the successors of Albuquerque were incompetent and corrupt. Naturally, that led to the decline of Portuguese power in Kerala.
The Portuguese had a strong impact on the educational and cultural life of the people of Kerala. The introduction of the printing press in Kerala can be counted as one of their biggest achievements. However, religious intolerance and bigotry marked their rule, leading to strife and disharmony among the local populace. This period also saw the revival of the Bhakti movement.
¤ Trade Link With Dutch
Lured by the possibility of trade with India, the Dutch landed on the western coast. Various treaties signed in 1608 and 1610 ensured trading facilities for the Dutch. With the treaty of 1619, the Dutch joined hands with the British to eliminate competition from the Portuguese.
The Dutch were able to fortify and monopolise trade in the regions of Purakkad, Kayakulum, Quilon and Travancore by 1662. One of the most singular achievements of the Dutch contingent in India was the conquest of Cochin in 1663. The decline of the Dutch became inevitable with the unprecedented rise of Travancore under Marthanda Varma (1729-58) and the Mysore invasion. The Zamorin also succeeded in depriving the Dutch of Cochin, Cranganore, Parur and Trichur at one go. By 1759, curtains fell on the Dutch power in India.
¤ Rise of Travancore
Travancore or Venad occupied centre stage in the political arena of Kerala around 18th century, thanks to the deeds of its two illustrious rulers, Marthanda Varma (1729-58) and Rama Varma, popularly known as Dharma Raja (1758-98). In his lifetime, Marthanda Varma successfully annexed the territories under the Dutch. Known as the Maker of Modern Travancore, Marthanda’s tenure is a remarkable period in the history of Kerala.
Rama Varma ascended the throne and ably carried out the task of administration. Two distinguished ministers, Ayyappan Marthanda Pillai and Raja Kesava Das assisted him in administering the kingdom.Rama Varma had to bear the brunt of Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan’s invasion. But Rama Varma’s defence system withstood even the might of Tipu’s forces.
Travancore was fortunate enough to be governed by many enlightened administrators like Velu Thampi, Rani Gouri Lakshmi Bai (1810-15), Gouri Parvati Bai (1815-29), Swati Tirunal (1829-47), Ayilyam Tirunal (1860-80), Sri Mulam Tirunal (1885-1924) who did much to see science, art and culture flourish in Travancore.
¤ Mysore Invades Kerala
Haider Ali, the ruler of Mysore, turned his attention towards Kerala after subduing Bednore in 1763. The regions of Kolathiri, Kottayam, Kadathanad, Kurumbranad and Calicut came under the dominion of Haider Ali. Again in 1773, Haider Ali laid siege on Kerala and conquered Trichur after restoring his authority in Malabar. Haider’s son, Tipu Sultan ascended the throne in 1782. Continuing in the footsteps of his illustrious father, Tipu managed to annex the entire South Malabar in 1783. Nevertheless, it was only in 1790 that he succeeded in breaching the Travancore Line.
But the beginning of the Third Mysore War spelt disaster for Tipu as, one after another, most of the kingdoms under Tipu surrendered to the British forces. With the signing of the Treaty of Serirangapatam in 1792, the last blow was dealt to Tipu’s reign. According to the terms of the treaty, Tipu had to hand over Malabar to the British.
¤ British Accession to Power
Like the other European powers, the British also came in as traders to India. By 1634-35, they had managed to gain permission to use all the Portuguese ports in Kerala from the Zamorin. The British fortified Calicut in 1664.In the years to follow, Travancore and Tellicherry also came under purview of the British.
But it was not all smooth sailing for the British. They had to face considerable opposition from the French and the Dutch. However, the British were successful in ousting other European powers such as the French and the Dutch, from their turf.
But the Keralites did not give in to the British without a whimper. Several revolts took place during the late 18th and early 19th century, which challenged British authority. Among them, the most important was the revolt of Velu Thampi and Paliath Achan who were Chief Ministers of Travancore and Cochin, respectively. Velu Thampi had led a popular uprising against the corruption and misrule of the king’s advisers.
The dictatorial attitude and adverse policies of the British Resident raised his hackles too. He found an ally in Paliath Achan, the Dewan of Cochin who was also dissatisfied with British administration.The famous proclamation asking people to rise against the British was issued in 1809 by Velu Thampi. Though the revolt was crushed mercilessly, Thampi and Achan are still revered as great patriots who sacrificed their lives for the country.
With the Treaty of Serirangapatam in 1792, Malabar came under the sway of the British. Compared to the many achievements of Travancore and Cochin, progress made by Malabar was insignificant. Malabar was converted into a district of the Madras Presidency.
Around 1836-56, Malabar saw a lot of disturbances due to the Mappila Riots. It is still unclear whether the cause of the riots was religious fanaticism or agrarian grievances and poverty. However, the British forces repressed the rebellion quite ruthlessly.
¤ The Growth of the National Movement
There was no dearth of patriotic fervour amongst the people of Kerala when India was going through the struggle for independence.Malabar was a centre of political agitation from the inception of the national movement. Many stalwarts of the Indian National Congress were from Malabar. The Non-Cooperation Movement and the Khilafat agitation found enthusiastic supporters in Malabar too. Mahatma Gandhi spearheaded the Salt Satyagraha of 1930 and the Civil Disobedience movement of 1932. These popular uprisings found an echo in Malabar too. The Muslim League also had a branch here, though it became a force to reckon with only in 1934. Abdul Rahman Ali Raja of Cannanore became the President of the Muslim League in 1937. The Communist Party found a foothold in Kerala around 1939.
The winds of patriotism swept through the princely states of Travancore and Cochin during the freedom struggle.Travancore had a long history of popular uprisings, the earliest of which was led by Velu Thampi in 1799. The Malayali Memorial signed in 1891, which chronicled the grievances of the local populace, raised the political consciousness of the people. Likewise, the Ezhava Memorial of 1896 was a petition that spelt out the injustices the Ezhava community had suffered for a long time. The Indian National Congress established a Congress Committee in Thiruvananthapuram. Travancore remained in a state of political unrest for many years.
Cochin also remained in the eye of the storm for several years during the national movement. The people of Cochin participated in several uprisings like the Electricity agitation, the agitation for a responsible government, to name a few. A committee of the Indian National Congress was set up in Cochin too.
¤ Kerala History Dates Back To Mauryan Empire
The first recorded history of Kerala appears in the inscriptions of the Mauryan Emperor, Ashoka (269-232 b.c.).In these inscriptions, Ashoka refers to four independent kingdoms that lay to the south of his empire. These were the kingdoms of the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Keralaputrasand the Satiyaputras.Among them, the Keralaputras or the Cheras, as they were called, reigned over Malabar, Cochin and North Travancore – all part of present-day Kerala. They managed to maintain their independence because they were on good terms with the Great Maurya. Otherwise, Ashoka, who was a great empire builder, would surely have attempted to bring these kingdoms under his tutelage.
The four South Indian Kingdoms extended a hand of friendship towards the Mauryas. It was really Hobson’s choice for them, having already experienced the Mauryan onslaught during the reign of Ashoka’s predecessor, Bindusara (297-272 b.c.)
¤ The Sangam Age
Information about the Cheras during the Mauryan times is very scarce. It is only in the Sangam Age that the history of Kerala emerges from myths and legends. The Sangam Age refers to the period during which Sangam literature was composed. Sangam literally means academy and these great works in Tamil were written in the first four centuries of the Christian era.
Tradition has it that the first three academies met at Madurai and were attended by kings and poets.
However, the literature composed at the First Sangam is no longer extant.
History of Shankaracharya
Tolkappiyam : The earliest work on Tamil grammar, was composed during the Second Sangam.
Ettutogai : The Third Sangam produced a remarkable collection of Tamil literature known as Ettutogai (“Eight Anthologies”). These anthologies give us a detailed description of the political, social and economic conditions of that period.
¤ The Chera Kingdom
The Sangam Age witnessed three political powers ruling the area which now constitutes the State of Kerala. These were the Ays in the south, the Cheras in Central Kerala and Ezhimalas to the north. The Ays established a kingdom which in its halcyon days, extended from Tiruvalla in the north to Nagercoil in the south. Antiran, Titiyam and Atiyan were the most prominent of the Ay rulers.
The Ezhimalas too ruled over an extensive area that covers the present Kannur and Wynad districts of North Kerala. However, the Cheras were the most conspicuous of the dynasties and founded a powerful kingdom in Kerala.
The first Chera ruler was Perumchottu Utiyan Cheralatan – a contemporary of the great Chola, King Karikalan. After suffering a humiliating defeat at the hands of the Chola ruler at the battle of Venni, he committed suicide.
His son, Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralatan, another important Chera ruler, succeeded him. During his long rule of 58 years, Imayavaramban Nedun Cheralatan consolidated the Chera Dynasty and extended its frontiers. He inflicted a crushing defeat on his sworn enemies, the Kadambas of Banavasi (see Uttar Kannad for details). Imayavaramban’s reign is of special significance to the development of art and literature. Kannanar was his poet laureate.
However, the greatest Chera King was Kadalpirakottiya Vel Kelu Kuttuvan, who is also identified with the mythical hero of the Silappadigaram (The Jewelled Anklet). Silappadigaram is one of the three great Tamil epics of the Sangam Age. The other two are Manimegalai and Sivaga-Sindamani. The great Tamil poet, Paranar, refers to his military exploits including his famous victory at Mogur Mannan and Kongar. Kuttuvan was the proponent of the Patni (wife) cult. The cult emphasised the utter devotion of a wife towards her husband. He dedicated a temple at Vanchi to Kannagi (the female protagonist of Silappadigaram), and the present Kurumba Bhagavati Temple at Kodungallur (Cranganore) is modelled on it. Kannagi’s devotion towards her husband was legendary. Recently, the Indian Government has instituted an award in her memory, which is given to the women.
¤ Kalabhra Interregnum
After the Sangam Age, Kerala passed through a dark period that lasted four centuries. This era is known as the ‘Kalabhra Interregnum’. At the end of the eighth centurya.d., South Indian kingdoms such as the Pallavas, the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas and the Pandyas succeeded in overthrowing the Kalabhras.
¤ Shankaracharya – The Great Theologian
It is a paradox that Buddhism disappeared (until its revival in recent years) from the land of its origin. One of the main reasons for this development was that a revived and reformed Hinduism began to emerge after the sixth century a.d.
In the eighth century, this reform movement was led by Adi Shankaracharya, whose position with respect to Hinduism is similar to that of St. Thomas Aquinas in the Roman Catholic Church. He travelled the length and breadth of India and got the better of many Buddhist missionaries in public discourses. Kalady, situated 25 kilometres northeast of Cochin, was the birthplace of Shankaracharya. A great philosopher and theologian, he propagated the advaita (monism) philosophy, which is also known as kevaladvaita (strict monism). Shankaracharya was also a great organiser. His missionary zeal was best exemplified in his establishment of four mathas (Hindu monastic establishments) in the four corners of the country. These are located at Sringeri in Karnataka, Dwarka in Gujarat, Puri in Orissa and Badrinath in Uttar Pradesh. Shankaracharya died at the young age of 32.
History of Kerala¤ The Second Chera Empire
Just after the eclipse of the Kalbhras, the Second Chera Empire made its appearance in the annals of Kerala history. Mahodyapuram (modern Kodangallur) was its capital. It was founded by Kulasekhara Alvar (a.d. 800-820), one of the 12 Alvars. Alvars were Tamil saints who composed and sang hymns in praise of Vishnu (The Preserver in the Hindu Holy Trinity of Creator-Preserver-Destroyer). They were exponents of the Bhakti (devotional) cult in South India. The Alvars gave a great impetus to the Bhakti cult in South India between the seventh and the 10th centuries. Kulasekhara Alvar was a scholar and a great patron of the arts. He composed five dramas – the Perumal Tirumozhi in Tamil, and Mukundamala, Tapatisamvarna, Subhadradhamala and Vichchinnabhiseka – all in Sanskrit, which testify to his scholarship.
¤ Rajasekhara Varman Rul (a.d. 820-44)
(succeeded Kulasekhara Alvar. He founded the ‘Kollam Era’ of Kerala, which began in a.d. 825. He is also reputed to have issued the Vazhappali Inscription, the first epigraphical record of the Chera Kingdom. Rajasekhara Varma was followed by Sthanu Ravi Varman (a.d. 844-55), a contemporary of the Chola King, Aditya I (a.d. 870-906).
The Tillaisthanam Inscription indicates that he was on friendly terms with the Chola monarch. His reign witnessed a flourishing trade between Kerala and China. This is borne out by the Arab merchant Sulaiman who visited India in a.d. 851. His first love was astronomy and Sankaranarayana, who composed the astronomical work Sankaranarayaniyam, adorned his court.
After Rajasekhara’s death, hostilities broke out between the Cheras and the Cholas, which continued until the disintegration of the Chera Kingdom. The Pandyas of the Madurai also involved themselves in the conflict.
Rama Varma Kulasekhara (a.d. 1090-1102) was the last of the Chera Kings. He shifted his capital to Quilon when the Cholas sacked Mahodyapuram during his reign. His death signalled the atomisation of the Chera Empire, from the ruins of which arose the independent kingdom of Venad.
¤ The Venad Kingdom
After the fall of the Kulasekharas, Venad emerged as an independent power. The kingdom reached its zenith under Udaya Marthanda Varma (1175-1195) and Ravi Varma Kulasekhara (1299-1314). An efficient ruler, Udaya Marthanda Varma was the architect of a brilliant administrative system for temples. The copper plates, which he issued during his rule, and which were called the Kollur Madham Plates and the Tiruvambadi Inscription of1183, testify to this fact.
Ravi Varma Kulasekhara was the most important ruler of the dynasty. He was a brave and active warrior. He brought peace and order to the strife-torn Pandya Empire, after Malik Kafur, lieutenant of the Delhi Sultan, Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296-1315), ravaged it. His reign saw the development of art and learning. A scholar and musician himself, he patronised intellectuals and poets during his tenure. The Sanskrit drama Pradyumnabhyudayam is ascribed to him. Trade and commerce also flourished during his rule and Quilon became a famous centre of business and enterprise.
After the death of Ravi Varma Kulasekhara, the history of the Venad Kingdom is not of special interest. The kingdom lingered on until the middle of the 18th century before it disintegrated.
¤ Emergence of Calicut
During the medieval period, Calicut rose to prominence from the ashes of the mighty Kulasekhara Empire, in the northern part of Kerala. The Zamorins (literally Lord of the Sea) were the hereditary rulers of Calicut who traced their lineage to the old Perumal dynasty of Kerala. Calicut emerged as a major seaport during the reign of the Zamorins.
Trade with foreigners like the Chinese and Arabs was the main source of revenue for the Zamorins. But it was the Arabs who managed to establish stronger trade links with the rulers of Calicut. Art and culture flourished under the Zamorins who were great patrons of literature.
Accounts of travellers like Ibn Batuta (1342-47), Ma Huan, the Chinese scholar, Abdur Razzak (1443), Nicolo Conti (1444) and Athanasius Nikitin (1468-74) corroborate this fact. Not content with the size of their kingdom, the Zamorins set about expanding its boundaries. The powerful Zamorins conquered Beypore, Parappanad, Vettat, Kurumbranad, Nilambur, Manjeri, Malappuram, Kottakal and Ponnai. By the 15th century, clashes between Cochin and Calicut became increasingly frequent. The reigning Zamorin emerged as the undisputed monarch of the North Malabar area, extending up to Pantalayani Kollam.
¤ The Europeans Arrive
The arrival of Vasco da Gama at Calicut in 1498, was a landmark event in the annals of history. At that time, Kerala was in the throes of political turmoil. Although the Portuguese did not enjoy cordial relations with the Zamorin, they succeeded in procuring some trading facilities at Quilon and Cannanore. But the Portuguese were intent on stopping the Arabs from trading with India.
Hostilities between Cochin and Calicut were exacerbated because the Raja of Cochin acted as a willing supporter of the Portuguese. However, the Zamorin faced a crushing defeat at the hands of the Portuguese when they laid siege on Cochin. The Portuguese gained permission to fortify Cochin and Cranganore in 1503 and 1504, respectively.
After Vasco da Gama, the most notable Portuguese to set foot on Indian soil, was Albuquerque. He managed to make peace with the Zamorin. A treaty was signed in 1513, which gave the Portuguese the right to construct a fort in Cochin and to carry on trade. However, the successors of Albuquerque were incompetent and corrupt. Naturally, that led to the decline of Portuguese power in Kerala.
The Portuguese had a strong impact on the educational and cultural life of the people of Kerala. The introduction of the printing press in Kerala can be counted as one of their biggest achievements. However, religious intolerance and bigotry marked their rule, leading to strife and disharmony among the local populace. This period also saw the revival of the Bhakti movement.
¤ Trade Link With Dutch
Lured by the possibility of trade with India, the Dutch landed on the western coast. Various treaties signed in 1608 and 1610 ensured trading facilities for the Dutch. With the treaty of 1619, the Dutch joined hands with the British to eliminate competition from the Portuguese.
The Dutch were able to fortify and monopolise trade in the regions of Purakkad, Kayakulum, Quilon and Travancore by 1662. One of the most singular achievements of the Dutch contingent in India was the conquest of Cochin in 1663. The decline of the Dutch became inevitable with the unprecedented rise of Travancore under Marthanda Varma (1729-58) and the Mysore invasion. The Zamorin also succeeded in depriving the Dutch of Cochin, Cranganore, Parur and Trichur at one go. By 1759, curtains fell on the Dutch power in India.
¤ Rise of Travancore
Travancore or Venad occupied centre stage in the political arena of Kerala around 18th century, thanks to the deeds of its two illustrious rulers, Marthanda Varma (1729-58) and Rama Varma, popularly known as Dharma Raja (1758-98). In his lifetime, Marthanda Varma successfully annexed the territories under the Dutch. Known as the Maker of Modern Travancore, Marthanda’s tenure is a remarkable period in the history of Kerala.
Rama Varma ascended the throne and ably carried out the task of administration. Two distinguished ministers, Ayyappan Marthanda Pillai and Raja Kesava Das assisted him in administering the kingdom.Rama Varma had to bear the brunt of Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan’s invasion. But Rama Varma’s defence system withstood even the might of Tipu’s forces.
Travancore was fortunate enough to be governed by many enlightened administrators like Velu Thampi, Rani Gouri Lakshmi Bai (1810-15), Gouri Parvati Bai (1815-29), Swati Tirunal (1829-47), Ayilyam Tirunal (1860-80), Sri Mulam Tirunal (1885-1924) who did much to see science, art and culture flourish in Travancore.
¤ Mysore Invades Kerala
Haider Ali, the ruler of Mysore, turned his attention towards Kerala after subduing Bednore in 1763. The regions of Kolathiri, Kottayam, Kadathanad, Kurumbranad and Calicut came under the dominion of Haider Ali. Again in 1773, Haider Ali laid siege on Kerala and conquered Trichur after restoring his authority in Malabar. Haider’s son, Tipu Sultan ascended the throne in 1782. Continuing in the footsteps of his illustrious father, Tipu managed to annex the entire South Malabar in 1783. Nevertheless, it was only in 1790 that he succeeded in breaching the Travancore Line.
But the beginning of the Third Mysore War spelt disaster for Tipu as, one after another, most of the kingdoms under Tipu surrendered to the British forces. With the signing of the Treaty of Serirangapatam in 1792, the last blow was dealt to Tipu’s reign. According to the terms of the treaty, Tipu had to hand over Malabar to the British.
¤ British Accession to Power
Like the other European powers, the British also came in as traders to India. By 1634-35, they had managed to gain permission to use all the Portuguese ports in Kerala from the Zamorin. The British fortified Calicut in 1664.In the years to follow, Travancore and Tellicherry also came under purview of the British.
But it was not all smooth sailing for the British. They had to face considerable opposition from the French and the Dutch. However, the British were successful in ousting other European powers such as the French and the Dutch, from their turf.
But the Keralites did not give in to the British without a whimper. Several revolts took place during the late 18th and early 19th century, which challenged British authority. Among them, the most important was the revolt of Velu Thampi and Paliath Achan who were Chief Ministers of Travancore and Cochin, respectively. Velu Thampi had led a popular uprising against the corruption and misrule of the king’s advisers.
The dictatorial attitude and adverse policies of the British Resident raised his hackles too. He found an ally in Paliath Achan, the Dewan of Cochin who was also dissatisfied with British administration.The famous proclamation asking people to rise against the British was issued in 1809 by Velu Thampi. Though the revolt was crushed mercilessly, Thampi and Achan are still revered as great patriots who sacrificed their lives for the country.
With the Treaty of Serirangapatam in 1792, Malabar came under the sway of the British. Compared to the many achievements of Travancore and Cochin, progress made by Malabar was insignificant. Malabar was converted into a district of the Madras Presidency.
Around 1836-56, Malabar saw a lot of disturbances due to the Mappila Riots. It is still unclear whether the cause of the riots was religious fanaticism or agrarian grievances and poverty. However, the British forces repressed the rebellion quite ruthlessly.
¤ The Growth of the National Movement
There was no dearth of patriotic fervour amongst the people of Kerala when India was going through the struggle for independence.Malabar was a centre of political agitation from the inception of the national movement. Many stalwarts of the Indian National Congress were from Malabar. The Non-Cooperation Movement and the Khilafat agitation found enthusiastic supporters in Malabar too. Mahatma Gandhi spearheaded the Salt Satyagraha of 1930 and the Civil Disobedience movement of 1932. These popular uprisings found an echo in Malabar too. The Muslim League also had a branch here, though it became a force to reckon with only in 1934. Abdul Rahman Ali Raja of Cannanore became the President of the Muslim League in 1937. The Communist Party found a foothold in Kerala around 1939.
The winds of patriotism swept through the princely states of Travancore and Cochin during the freedom struggle.Travancore had a long history of popular uprisings, the earliest of which was led by Velu Thampi in 1799. The Malayali Memorial signed in 1891, which chronicled the grievances of the local populace, raised the political consciousness of the people. Likewise, the Ezhava Memorial of 1896 was a petition that spelt out the injustices the Ezhava community had suffered for a long time. The Indian National Congress established a Congress Committee in Thiruvananthapuram. Travancore remained in a state of political unrest for many years.
Cochin also remained in the eye of the storm for several years during the national movement. The people of Cochin participated in several uprisings like the Electricity agitation, the agitation for a responsible government, to name a few. A committee of the Indian National Congress was set up in Cochin too.
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