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CROP HUSBANDRY-MANGO CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-27T05:50:00.000-08:00

MANGO (Mangifera indica)
Mango is adaptable to a wide range of climate and soil conditions and grows well from sea level up to about 1500 m above mean sea level. It withstands both fairly dry conditions and heavy rainfall.

Varieties
Alphonso, Kalapady, Neelum, Mundappa, Pairi, Benishan, Alampur Benishan, Mulgoa, Suvarnarekha.

Hybrids
Hybrid No.45 (Bennet Alphonso x Himayuddin), Hybrid No.87 (Kalapady x Alampur Benishan), Hybrid No.151 (Kalapady x Neelum)

Season
Plant one year old grafts with the onset of monsoon showers so that they get established before the rains. If rainfall is heavy, planting should be done during August-September.

Vegetative propagation
Stone grafting is successful in mango. August is ideal for the operation. Select four month old scion materials. Defoliation of scion shoots 10 days prior to grafting is beneficial. Grafting of 8 cm long scion on rootstocks at a height of 6 to 8 cm is most successful. The dieback disease of grafts caused by Colletotrichum can be controlled by spraying 1% Bordeaux mixture.

Planting
Select good grafts for planting. Planting can be done according to the square system or hexagonal system. Prepare pits of size 1 x 1 x 1 m at a spacing of 9 m one month before planting and allow to weather. Refill pits with mixture of topsoil and 10 kg of compost or FYM per pit to a level higher than the adjoining ground. Plant the grafts at the same depths as they were in the containers, preferably in the late evening. Deep planting results in poor growth of the plant. Ensure that the graft joint is above the soil level. Tie the plants to stakes to prevent snapping at the graft joints.

Manuring
Apply FYM/compost and fertilizers at the rate indicated below:

(Age of plant)

(FYM kg/Plant/Year)

(N:P2O5:K2O)
(g/plant/year)

1st year

10

20:18:50

2nd year

15

50:27:75

3-5 years

25

100:36:100

6-7 years

40

250:172:200

8-10 years

50

400:144:400

0ver 10 years

75

500:360:750

Green leaves (25 kg/plant) and wood ash (10-15 kg/plant) may be applied additionally. Apply organic manures in May-June with the onset of monsoon. Apply the fertilizers in one dose during May-June until bearing stage and thereafter in two equal split doses, the first during May-June and the second during August-September. Apply manures and fertilizers in trenches 30 cm deep taken at a distance of 2.5 to 3 m from the base of the tree.

After cultivation
Irrigate twice a week during summer months till the plants are 4-5 years old. Grow vegetables, horse gram, black gram, pineapple and banana as intercrops in young orchards. Carry out intercultural operations by ploughing or digging twice during the year in June and October. For reducing fruit drop and to improve productivity, NAA at 10-30 ppm concentration may be sprayed to the entire inflorescence at the pea stage in the second week after fruit set.

Plant protection
The important pests of mango are hoppers, stem borers, shoot midges, leaf feeding insects, fruit flies and psyllids. The common diseases are the powdery mildew, anthracnose and dieback. To control mango hopper, spray carbaryl 0.1% or malathion 0.1% at the time of flowering. To control mango stem borer, apply paste made of crude carbolic acid (130 ml), soft soap (1 kg) and hot water (3.7 litres) to holes in the bark and plug the holes. Alternatively, inject aluminium phosphide tablets into the burrows after chiselling the opening and widening the burrows with an auger. To control fruit fly, spray malathion 0.1% emulsion / suspension containing 2% sugar. Collect and destroy attacked fruits that rot and drop down. Fruit flies can be effectively managed by keeping Ocimum trap @ 4 / tree and a bait spray of 0.1% malathion with 2% sugar at monthly intervals from initial fruit set up to harvest. To control the leaf feeding insects, apply carbaryl 0.1%. To control shoot midge, which causes the drying of tender shoots, apply carbaryl 0.1% or dimethoate 0.05%. Apply wettable sulphur for the control of powdery mildew and anthracnose. To control dieback of twigs and branches, cut the affected twigs below the infected region and apply Bordeaux paste to the cut ends.

CROP HUSBANDRY-MANDARIN ORANGE CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-27T05:48:00.000-08:00

MANDARIN ORANGE (Citrus reticulata)
Mandarin orange is a subtropical fruit growing in the high ranges of Kerala. It requires deep soil rich in humus. The crop cannot withstand waterlogging. It is grown in regions having good drainage.

Preparation of land
Dig pits of size 70 x 60 x 70 cm at a spacing of 7-8 m at least one month in advance of planting.

Planting material
Use seedlings and budded plants for planting. For raising seedlings, extract seeds from selected fruits by squeezing. Wash the seeds free of pulp and dry them. Make seedbeds 1.5 m long, 1 m wide and 15 cm high. Sow the seeds giving a spacing of 13 cm in a row and 3 cm between the rows. Thin the seedlings if necessary or plant selected seedlings in secondary nursery. For budding, use rough lemon (jamber) seedlings as rootstock. Raise the rootstock seedlings in a nursery and when they are 18-24 months old, budding may be done by the inverted "T" method. The best time for budding is from July to September. A month after insertion, lop off the vegetative growth of the seedling above the bud joint completely. The budded plants are ready for planting in 6-12 months.

Time and method for planting
Planting is done during July-August. Lift the plants carefully with a ball of earth around the roots and plant them carefully without disturbing the roots. While planting, remove the bandage around the bud joint and keep the bud joint at least 10-15 cm above soil surface. Remove the vegetative growth arising below the bud union periodically.

Manuring

The manuring schedule recommended is given below.

(Time after Planting)

(FYM)

(kg/plant)

(N:P2O5:K2O)

(g/plant/year)

1st year

2

40:20:25

2nd year

4

80:35:50

3rd year

6

160:75:100

4th year

8

300:100:150

5th year

10

600:175:300

6th year

10

800:275:750

7th year onwards

10

800:275:1000

Apply organic manure in May and fertilizers in two equal split doses during June-July and in September-October. In addition to the above manures and fertilizers, spray micronutrients such as zinc sulphate: 500 g, copper sulphate: 500 g, manganese sulphate: 300 g and lime: 500 g in 100 litres of water per ha twice in a year during March and October-November.

Aftercultivation
Give a light digging or ploughing when the rains start.

Pruning
In the early stages, give some formative pruning to establish a strong framework. Remove all shoots arising from rootstock below the bud union. Remove dead branches and smear the cut ends with Bordeaux paste. Do not prune the roots.

Intercropping
Crops like coffee, cardamom, banana and pineapple can be planted as intercrops depending on soil fertility status.

Plant protection
For controlling citrus butterfly, hand picking of caterpillars and spraying with a contact insecticide are to be done.

To control stem borer incidence, chip off the affected new shoots and spray 0.2% carbaryl suspension once in three months. If borer tunnels have already been formed, inject 1% dichlorvos into the tunnels. To control aphids apply dimethoate 0.05% or monocrotophos 0.05%.

Stem borers (Chelidonium sp., Chloridolum sp. and Nupserha sp.) cause withering of branches. Gum exudes from holes on stems and branches. Accumulation of wood dust on ground around the base is another symptom of borer damage.

Cutting and burning of the affected branches, injecting petrol or suspensions of carbaryl 1% using syringe and painting the stem with carbaryl 0.3% suspension during May are recommended against the borers.

Among diseases, dieback, root and collar rot are important. Periodical removal of dried twigs and application of Bordeaux paste on cut ends and application of Bordeaux mixture can control dieback disease.

Against root and collar rot, removal of soil from the base of the trunk, scraping of the dead bark and application of lime-sulphur have to be done. As an alternative, smear Bordeaux paste over the treated roots and stem. Exposing the main roots to a depth of about 30 cm is also advised.

CROP HUSBANDRY-JACK(CHAKKAPLAV) CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-25T04:08:00.000-08:00

JACK (Artocarpus heterophyllus)Jack comes up well in humid regions up to an elevation of 1000 m. Soil should be deep and well drained. Any rise in water table or poor aeration of the soil is detrimental to the crop.

Varieties / types
Jackfruit differs in size, shape and quality. The jackfruit may be classified into two groups: (i) soft fleshed and (ii) firm fleshed. The firm fleshed type is highly tasty, sweet and crisp. The two groups are further classified depending on the taste, size of fruit, odour of flesh, nature, shape and diversity of prickles on the rind.

Two distinct types with desirable qualities recommended for Kerala are:
1. Muttom varikka which is a firm fleshed, sweet scented variety.
2. Singapore or Srilanka jack which is an introduced variety from Srilanka. It bears fruits in 3 years after planting and is extremely precocious in habit. The fruits are more or less the same size as the common jackfruit. A tree may yield as many as 250 fruits.

Planting materials
Use seedlings or grafts for planting. For grafting, raise seedlings in polythene bags and when they are 9-12 months old do inarching. One month after grafting, behead the rootstock above the graft joint.

Epicotyl grafting can be undertaken successfully in jack. Three to four month old, 10 cm long scions are grafted on five-day old rootstocks in polythene bags by the cleft method during the month of June and kept under moist conditions. The scions should be pre-cured 10 days before grafting by clipping the leaf blades and keeping the petioles intact on the twig. The graft union is complete by 80 days after grafting operations.

Season
Plant seedlings or one year old grafts at the onset of monsoon showers.

Planting
Prepare pits of size 60 x 60 x 60 cm at a spacing of 12-15 m. Refill pits with mixture of topsoil and 10 kg compost or FYM per pit to a level higher than the adjoining ground. Plant the grafts in the same depth as they were in the containers, preferably in the late evening. Deep planting results in poor growth of the graft. Ensure that the graft joint is above the soil level. Stake the plants to prevent snapping at the graft joints. Excellent drainage and adequate watering result in better performance. At no stage it should be exposed to drought or frost. It is useful to provide some protection, especially to young trees. Jack is rarely manured. Even without fertilizer application, the jack trees come up well under Kerala conditions.

Harvesting
The seedling plants generally bear after eight years and the grafted plants after three years of planting. The fruiting season lasts about four months from January-February to May-June. The average yield from one tree is about 50-100 fruits per year.

Plant protection
The important pests of jack are shoot borer caterpillar, mealy bug and jack scale.
1. To control shoot borer caterpillars spray with any contact insecticide.
2. To control jack scale apply contact insecticide.
3. To control mealy bug, spray contact insecticides like lime sulphur or dust sulphur.
The common diseases that attack the tree are the pink disease, stem rot and fruit rot. Pruning of affected plants and protecting the cut-ends with Bordeaux paste are recommended against these diseases.

CROP HUSBANDRY-INDIAN GOOSEBERRY(NELLIKKA)CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-25T04:04:00.000-08:00

INDIAN GOOSEBERRY (Phyllanthus emblica)Gooseberry (nelli) is quite hardy and can be grown with little care in all types of soil except very sandy type. It prefers a warm dry climate and is found in the dry deciduous forests of Kerala.

Varieties

Much genetic variability exists in this species. However, a high yielding larger fruited variety was located from the rain shadow region of the Western Ghats and popularized as "Chambakad Large". Other varieties are Banarasi, Krishna and Kanchan.

Cultivation

Nelli is usually propagated by seeds and vegetatively by wedge grafting. The seeds are enclosed in a hard seed coat, which renders the germination difficult. The seeds can be extracted by keeping fully ripe fruits in the sun on a flat rock for about 2-3 days till they split open releasing the seeds. The seeds can be directly sown. Gooseberry can be vegetatively propagated through root suckers.

One year old seedlings can be planted in the field during rainy season at a spacing of 8 x 8 m. It can be planted as windbreak around the orchard.

No serious pests or diseases are generally found in this crop.

Harvesting
Planted seedlings will commence bearing from the 10th year. The vegetative growth of the tree continues from April to July. Along with the new growth in the spring, flowering also commences. Fruits will mature by January-February. Yield ranges between 30-50 kg per tree per year when full grown.

CROP HUSBANDRY-GUAVA CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-25T04:00:00.000-08:00

GUAVA (Psidium guajava)Guava thrives well in places receiving medium rainfall not exceeding 100 cm. In heavy rainfall areas, plants grow luxuriantly, but the quality of the fruits is found to be very poor and insipid. It grows well on any type of soil. Red sandy loam soil with good drainage is most ideal for commercial cultivation of guava.

VarietiesAllahabad Safeda, Sardar (Lucknow-49), Red Fleshed, Apple Coloured and Pear Shaped

Planting material
Seed propagation is not practised because of high degree of variation among the progenies. Air layering is widely adopted for propagation of selected varieties. Layers strike roots within 3-5 weeks. When the roots grow through the ball of moss, the stem may be severed below the girdled area in stages. The polythene film is removed from the finally severed rooted stem, which is then potted and kept in the shade until new leaves appear. When the new flushes are produced, the plant can be hardened in full sunlight preparatory to transplanting in the field.

PlantingPits of one metre cube are made 6 m apart. Fill the pits with topsoil, sand and cowdung. Layers are planted in the centre of the pit. Staking of plants is also done, if necessary. After planting, mulching with dry leaves should be done to conserve moisture. June-July is the ideal time for planting the layers and seedlings. Plants should be irrigated in summer. Square system of planting facilitates easy orchard operations. Guava can be grown as an intercrop in coconut gardens.

Manuring
A fully grown-up bearing plant should be manured with about 80 kg of FYM, 200 g N, 80 g P2O5 and 260 g K2O. These may be applied in two or three split doses when there is sufficient moisture in the soil.

YieldGuava starts bearing from 3-4 years after planting. About 500-800 fruits per year can be obtained from a 10 year old tree.

Plant protection
Fruit rot disease
This is a serious disease of guava especially during rainy seasons. The symptoms are manifested as development of dark brown circular spots at the blossom end of the immature green fruits. Application of zineb (0.2%) or aureofungin (10 ppm) as monthly sprays during June to October can control the disease.

Guava wiltIn affected trees, the branches wither and die one after another and in a few weeks or months the tree, which seemed entirely healthy will be dead. It is better to remove such trees as soon as the symptoms are identified to prevent the spread of the disease.

Fruit flyThis is a serious pest of guava. The insect affects the fruit when it matures. The infested fruits show depression with dark green punctures. As a precautionary measure, the crop should be sprayed just before fruit maturity with carbaryl (0.1%) or dimethoate (0.1%).

CROP HUSBANDRY-BANANA CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-25T03:47:00.000-08:00

BANANA (Musa spp.)
Banana prefers tropical humid lowlands and is grown from the sea level to 1000 m above MSL. It can also be grown at elevations up to 1200 m, but at higher elevations growth is poor. Optimum temperature is 27ºC. Soils with good fertility and assured supply of moisture are best suited.

Season
Rain fed crop: April-May
Irrigated crop: August-September

Adjust planting season depending upon local conditions. Avoid periods of heavy monsoon and severe summer for planting. Adjust the time of planting so as to avoid high temperature and drought at the time of emergence of bunches (7-8 months after planting).

Varieties

Nendran (Clones): Nedunendran, Zanzibar, Chengalikodan

Table varieties: Monsmarie, Robusta, Giant Governor, Dwarf Cavendish, Chenkadali, Poovan, Palayankodan, Njalipoovan, Amritsagar, Grosmichael, Karpooravally, Poomkalli, Koompillakannan, Chinali Dudhsagar), BRS-1 and BRS-2

Culinary varieties: Monthan, Batheesa, Kanchekela, Nendrapadathy

Njalipoovan, Robusta, BRS-1 and BRS-2 are particularly suitable for intercropping in coconut gardens both under rainfed and irrigated conditions Dudhsagar is highly resistant to major pests and diseases. The variety Boldles Altafort is recommended for high range region (ad hoc).

Preparation of land
Prepare the field by ploughing or digging and dig pits for planting. Size of pits depends upon soil type, water table and variety. In general, pit size of 50 x 50 x 50 cm is recommended. In low-lying areas, take mounds for planting suckers.

Selection of suckers
Select 3-4 month old disease free sword suckers from healthy clumps. In the case of Nendran variety, cut back pseudostem to a length of 15-20 cm from corm and remove old roots. The rhizomes are to be smeared with cowdung solution and ash and dried in the sun for about 3-4 days and stored in shade up to 15 days before planting.

Spacing
Spacing may be provided as indicated below:

Variety
(Spacing,in m)

(Suckers/ha)

Poovan 2.1 x 2.1
2260

Chenkadali 2.1 x 2.1
2260

Palayankodan 2.1 x 2.1
2260

Monthan 2.1 x 2.1
2260

Nendran 2.0 x 2.0
2500

Grosmichael 2.4 x 2.4
1730

Robusta, Monsmarie,
Dwarf Cavandish
2.4 x 1.8
2310

PlantingPlant suckers upright in the centre of pits with 5 cm pseudostem remaining above soil level. Press soil around the sucker to avoid hollow air spaces.

Manuring1. Apply compost, cattle manure or green leaves at the rate of 10 kg/plant at the time of planting.
2. Apply N:P2O5:K2O at the following dose (g/plant/year).

Nendran (irrigated): 190:115:300

Other varieties depending upon soil fertility level: 60-200 : 160-200 : 320-400

Palayankodan (rainfed): 100:200:400

Palayankodan (reclaimed alluvial soils of Kuttanad)

Plant crop: 100:200:400

First ratoon: 150:200:800

Second ratoon: 150:200:800

Plant crop followed by two ratoon crops gives maximum yield. Two suckers per clump should be retained for ratooning.

Apply the fertilizer 60-75 cm around the plant in two equal split doses; the first, two months after planting and the second, four months after planting. For ratoon crop, the entire fertilizers have to be applied in a single dose immediately after the harvest of the preceding crop. Irrigate immediately after manuring.

Note: For Nendran, apply the fertilizers in six split doses as detailed below which will be beneficial to improve the finger size and bunch weight, provided the farmers can afford the cost of application.

Time of fertilizer application
N:P2O5:K2O
(g/plant)

One month after planting
40:65:60

Two months after planting
30:50:60

Three months after planting
30:00:60

Four months after planting
30:00:60

Five months after planting
30:00:60

Just after complete emergence of bunch
30:00:00

Total
190:115:300

For Palayankodan (rainfed), planting may be done in January and the suckers may be given pot irrigation @ nine litres of water once in 15 days until April-May.

After planting banana, sow sunn hemp / daincha / cowpea adopting a seed rate of 50 kg/ha. Incorporate the crop into the soil 40 days after sowing. Repeat sowing of green manure crop and incorporate into soil 40 days after sowing.

Irrigation1. During summer months, irrigate once in three days.
2. Ensure good drainage and prevent waterlogging.
3. About 6-10 irrigations per crop may be given depending upon soil conditions.
4. Banana var. Nendran (October planting) grown under deep water table conditions (below 2 m from ground level) needs 10 mm (40 l/plant) irrigation once in two days during summer season to ensure higher bunch yield and better water use efficiency. Mulching the basin with 3.5 kg paddy straw (waste quality) will considerably improve the bunch yield.

Weed control
During early stages, complete control of weeds could be obtained by raising cowpea in the interspaces. In gardens where this is not possible, pre-emergence application of diuron 1.5 kg/ha or oxyfluorfen 0.2 kg/ha is effective. Weeds emerging later could be controlled by the application of paraquat 0.4 kg/ha or glyphosate 0.4 kg/ha. If hand weeding is resorted to, give 4-5 surface diggings depending on weed growth. Avoid deep digging. Do not disturb soil after plants start producing bunches. If green manure crop is grown, weeding operations can be reduced to 1-2 diggings.

DesuckeringRemove side suckers produced till the emergence of bunch. Retain one or two suckers produced after the emergence of bunch.

Intercropping in Nendran varietyCucumber and amaranth can be cultivated profitably with banana raised in September-October without affecting the bunch weight. For vegetable purpose, cucumber may be harvested within 95 days and for seed purpose the duration may be about 130 days. Greater yam and elephant foot yam can be profitably intercropped with Nendran.

Tissue culture Nendran banana (Ad hoc recommendation)Tissue culture offers a rapid method of multiplication of quality, uniform, pest and disease free production of planting materials in large quantities in banana. The productivity of banana can be increased by cultivation of tissue culture plants of selected elite ecotypes of different varieties.

SpacingGive spacing of 2 m x 2 m (2500 plants/ha)
Tissue culture plants can also be used for high density planting in Nendran banana to achieve higher returns. The spacing recommended for high density planting is as follows:
(a) 2 m x 3 m with two plants / pit (3332 plants in 1666 pits per ha)
(b) 1.75 m x 1.75 m with one plant per pit (3265 plants / ha)

Pit size50 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm

Method of plantingPrepare pits 15 days in advance of planting. Fill the pits with topsoil and FYM 15-20 kg per plant per pit. Plant the tissue culture plants on the top of the pit at ground level. Remove the polythene cover completely before planting without damaging the roots. Planting may be done preferably during evening hours. Provide partial shade to plants to protect against sun scorching for about two weeks. Irrigate the crop daily during initial days of establishment.

Plant ProtectionApply carbofuran 30 g/plant at planting, 15 g each at 60 and 90 days after planting.
Adopt integrated plant protection measures to control major pests and diseases.

Manures and Fertilizers
Apply FYM @ 15-20 kg per plant at the time of land preparation.
Apply lime 1 kg/plant with the organic manure at the time of land preparation.
Apply N:P2O5:K2O @ 300:115:450 g/plant in six split doses as shown below.

Time of application
N:P2O5:K2O
(g/plant)
1 month after planting
50:65:65

2 months after planting
50:00:65

3 months after planting
50:50:65

4 months after planting
50:00:65

5 months after planting
50:00:65

7th month (i.e. after bunch emergence)
50:00:125

Plant protection
Pests Banana pseudostem weevil (Odoiporus longicollis) (ad hoc recommendation)
The weevil resembling the rhizome weevil of banana is becoming a serious pest in recent years. Adult female weevil punctures and inserts eggs into the pseudostem. Grubs emerging out feed extensively on the pseudostem and thereby the entire plant collapses.

Control

1. Field sanitation is the most important factor in the prophylactic and curative control of this pest.
2. Remove affected plants along with the rhizome in full and destroy them by burning the life stages of the insect using kerosene or by burying the material in deep pits in soil.
3. Destroy the parts of rhizome and pseudostem of harvested plants in the field and destroy them as described above.
4. Remove the dry outer sheaths of the pseudostem of all infested and un-infested plants in the endemic areas and spray any of the recommended insecticides. Drenching all the leaf axils, rhizome and surrounding soil and all round the entire pseudostem inserting the nozzle through the bore holes made by the larvae if any and also within the outer sheathes by slightly raising the same at different spots is also effective. Apply quinalphos 0.05% or chlorpyrifos 0.03% or carbaryl 0.2%. Repeat the treatment after 3 weeks if the infestation persists.

Banana rhizome weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus) (ad hoc recommendation)
The attack by this pest is reported to be serious in all localities where banana is cultivated. Female adults puncture healthy rhizomes and insert eggs through it. Grubs tunnel within and feed resulting in the stunting of rhizome development. If the infestation occurs on a mature rhizome, damage symptoms appear through the reduction in leaf number, bunch size and the fruit number.
Control
1. Adopt strict field sanitation.
2. Select only healthy planting material.
3. Deep plough the land so as to expose the inner soil layer to sun.
4. Cut and remove the outer layer of the rhizome and sundry for 3-4 days after smearing it with slurry of cowdung and ash.
5. Set traps using pseudostem of approximately 1/2 m length, which are split lengthwise and laid in the field. Adults attracted to it during nights may be collected and destroyed.

Aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa)
These act as vector for the transmission of the dreadful bunchy top disease in banana.

Control

1. Apply 25 g phorate 10G or 20 g carbofuran 3G 20 days after planting around the rhizomes in soil.
2. Apply 12.5 g phorate 10G or 10 g carbofuran 3G per plant in the leaf axils or 25 g phorate or 20 g carbofuran per plant in the soil 75 days after planting. This may be repeated 165 days after planting.
3. For variety Chenkadali, apply 25 g phorate 10G or 20 g carbofuran 3G per plant as soil application, first at 20 days after planting and again at 95 and 165 days after planting.

Spindle leaf miner (Assuania sp.)
Spray dimethoate 0.05% on the spindle for controlling the leaf miner.

Nematodes
Major species are burrowing nematode (Radopholus sp.), root knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita), root lesion nematode (Pratylenchus coffeae) and cyst nematode (Heterodera oryzicola).

In case of severe infestation there will be high reduction in the number of leaves, total bunch weight and the number of fruits.

Control

Pare the rhizomes and apply neem cake @ 1 kg/plant and carbofuran @ 0.5 g ai/plant at the time of the planting (ad hoc recommendation).

When granules are applied around the base of plants, there should be sufficient soil moisture; otherwise, the plants should be watered after broadcasting granular insecticides.

Diseases
Bunchy top disease
This is a virus disease transmitted by aphids.

Control

1. Use insecticidal treatments recommended for insect vector control.
2. Eradicate disease affected plants.
3. Use disease free suckers for planting. Karpooravally, Kanchikela, Njalipoovan and Koompillakannan are less susceptible varieties.

Panama wilt (banana wilt) (Fusarium oxysporum f. cubense)
1. Dip suckers of susceptible varieties in 0.1-0.2% carbendazim solution to prevent spread of the disease.
2. Drench the soil around affected clumps with 0.2% carbendazim solution to prevent spread of disease.
3. Remove and destroy affected clumps along with corms.
4. Apply lime @ 1 kg/pit and allow to weather. Varieties such as Palayankodan, Robusta and Nendran are resistant to the disease.

Sigatoka leaf spot (Mycosphaerella sp.)
1. Cut and burn all severely affected leaves.
2. Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture soon after the appearance of the initial symptoms of the disease. The disease appears with the commencement of southwest monsoon. Five to six sprayings at fortnightly intervals are to be given depending upon the severity of the disease.
3. Power oil (mineral oil) 1% emulsion is also effective in controlling the disease.
4. Spray carbendazim (0.1%) or give alternate sprays of tridemorph (0.05%), mancozeb (0.2 %) and carbendazim (0.1%) soon after the appearance of initial symptoms of the disease. Three to four sprayings at fortnightly intervals are to be given depending on the severity of disease.

Kokkan disease (Banana bract mosaic virus)
Kokkan disease was first reported from Thrissur district in the variety Nendran. Later on, the disease was found to affect other varieties like Palayankodan, Kodappanillakunnan, Monthan, Kanchikela, Poovan (Rasthali), Karpooravally and Chenkadali. Nendran is the highly susceptible variety.

During the young stage of Nendran banana plant (two months old), pinkish streaks can be seen on the pseudostem. All the kokkan affected plants need not show this symptom, but once this symptom is expressed there is no doubt that the particular plant is affected with kokkan disease. Necrotic streaks are another important symptom of the disease. The necrotic streaks are initially brown, which later turn black. It occurs on all aerial parts of the affected plant except on lamina, the length being a few mm to 10 cm. All the kokkan-affected plants will exhibit the necrotic streaks from third month onwards at one stage or other. Some of the affected plants retain the necrotic streaks throughout the growth period. In certain cases it disappears with the senescence of the affected portion.

The affected plant produces only a small bunch. The fingers are small, curved and widely divergent with pale green to ashy green colour as compared to healthy. The abnormal colour and reduction in the size of the bunch depend upon the severity of the disease.

Suckers should not be taken from affected plants, which show necrotic streaks or abnormal colour of the pseudostem.
When the young plants show the symptom of pinkish streaks, they should be uprooted and destroyed.

Infectious chlorosis (Cucumber mosaic virus disease)
The disease is noticed in varieties such as Nendran, Palayankodan, Karpooravally, Kosthabontha, Peykunnan, Bhimkhel, Mottapoovan, Dakshinsagar, Madhuraga (Rasthali) and Musa ornata.

The most characteristic symptoms are the loss of leaf colour in patches; appearance of parallel chlorotic streaks on the younger leaves, giving a striped appearance on the leaves. As the disease progresses, leaves emerge distorted, margins become irregularly wavy, often with blotches of necrotic tissues and the leaf lamina is reduced in width. In severe cases, rotted areas are found throughout the leaf sheath and pseudostem. The affected plants produce only small bunches. This is a virus disease transmitted by aphids.

1. Use disease free suckers for planting.
2. Eradicate disease affected plants.
3. Use insecticides recommended for insect vector control.
4. Avoid growing leguminous and cucurbitaceous vegetables as intercrop in banana.

SOME TIPS FOR VEGETABLE SEED PRODUCTION IN KERALA

2008-11-13T06:27:00.000-08:00

TIPS FOR VEGETABLE SEED PRODUCTION
General principles

The seed production programme envisages to produce genetically pure quality seeds and to store them in a viable condition for a reasonable period of time, until it reaches the farmers. The seeds should have genetic purity, uniformity in size and shape, high germination and vigour. The seeds should be free from mechanical damages, insect and fungal infestation and other crop and weed seeds. A commercial seed production programme has three aspects - seed production, seed processing and seed storage.

a. Seed production

The following aspects are important in this:

1. Basic knowledge on the specific requirement of the crop (climate, soil requirement etc.), specific characteristics of the variety, pests and diseases and their control measures are essential before taking up the seed production programme.
2. In general, September to January is the most suitable season for taking up seed production in Kerala.
3. Site selected for seed production should be open, receiving good sunlight, well drained and fertile soil, free from infectious pest and disease organisms.
4. Seeds for multiplication should be obtained from reliable sources.
5. Proper isolation distance should be maintained between varieties and related species.
6. Scientific roguing (removal of off-types at nursery stage, vegetative phase, flowering, fruiting and harvest stages) should be practised.
7. All plants infected by diseases should be removed from the seed production plot. No objectionable weeds are permitted in seed production plot.
8. In general, for most vegetable crops, taking one or two vegetable harvests is found ideal for economic seed production.
9. Provide one additional topdressing with N and K2O at fruit development phase, adequate irrigation and plant protection measures.
10. General cultivation and plant protection practices recommended for vegetable production can be adopted in seed crop also.
11. Harvest the crop at optimum fruit maturity, since immature and over mature fruits affect the seed quality.

b. Seed processing

1. Seed processing involves extraction of seeds from the fruits and reducing the seed moisture content to a level of 6-8%.
2. Wet and dry methods of seed extraction are adopted depending on the nature of the crop. Slow drying at low temperature (below 38ºC) is advisable rather than quick drying at high temperature.
3. Exposing seeds to open sunlight during peak hours of sunshine (12 noon to 3 p.m.) should be avoided.
4. Spread the seeds in thin layer and give frequent raking for aeration while drying to avoid fungal infestation.
5. Clean the seeds by removing inert matter, damaged and underdeveloped seeds etc. to get uniform quality seeds.

c. Seed storage

1. Store seeds under cool and dry conditions to maintain the viability
2. Seed moisture content of 6-8%, atmospheric temperature of 22ºC and relative humidity of 45% are the most ideal conditions for seed storage. The sum of storage temperature (ºC) and humidity (%) should not exceed 80.
3. Pre-storage seed treatment with fungicides (captan or thiram @ 2.5 g / kg of seeds) and insecticides (carbaryl 10% D @ 10 g/kg or lindane 5% D @ 20 g/kg) would protect the seeds from various fungal and insect infestations.
4. Store the treated seeds in 700 gauge polythene bags in sealed conditions.
Specific recommendations for seed production of the individual crops other than the general aspects mentioned above are given below:

Solanaceous vegetables

Tomato

The best time for planting tomato for seed production is October. Give an isolation distance of 50 m for foundation seed (FS) production and 25 m for certified seed (CS) between varieties. Rogue out off-types and virus infected plants. Maximum off-types and diseased plants permitted is 0.1% each only. Seeds should have a minimum purity of 98% and germination of 70%. Maximum permitted inert matter content is 2%, other crop seeds 0.1%, weed seeds 0.1%, and maximum moisture content 8%.

Brinjal

Give an isolation distance of 200 m for FS and 100 for CS. Remove off-types and plants infected by little leaf disease. No objectionable weeds are permitted in the seed production plot. Maximum level of off-types and plants infested by designated diseases are 0.1% each. Seeds should have a minimum purity of 98% and germination of 70%. Maximum inert matter content permitted is 2%, other crop seeds 0.1%, weed seeds 0.1% and maximum moisture content 8%.

Chilli

Provide an isolation distance of 400 m for FS and 200 m for CS. Remove off-types and plants infected by virus diseases. No objectionable weeds are permitted in the seed production plot. Maximum level of off-types and plants infested by designated diseases are 0.1% each. Fruits of 45-50 days maturity may be harvested for seed extraction in the case of Jwalasakhi and Ujwala. Seeds should have a minimum purity of 98% and germination of 70%; maximum inert matter content permitted is 2%, other crop seeds 0.1%, weed seeds 0.1%; and maximum moisture content 8%.

Okra

Provide an isolation distance of 400 m for FS and 200 m for CS. Remove off-types and plants infected by yellow vein mosaic disease. No objectionable weeds are permitted in the seed production plot. Maximum level of off-types and plants infected by yellow vein mosaic is 0.1% each. It is economical to take two vegetable harvests and then retain the crop for seed production. Fruits of 36 days maturity may be harvested for seed extraction in the case of Arka Anamika. At this stage the pod colour completely turns to brown and tips dry. Seeds can be stored in polythene bags of 700 gauge thickness.
Seeds should have a minimum purity of 99% and germination of 65%. Maximum inert matter content permitted is 1%; no seeds of other crops or weeds are permitted; and maximum moisture content permitted for open storage is 10% and for storing in moisture proof containers is 8%.

Cucurbits

General

An isolation distance of 800 m for FS and 400 m for CS is required between varieties and related species. Remove off-types, wild cucurbits and plants infected by designated diseases. No objectionable weeds are permitted in the seed production plot. Maximum level of off-types and plants infected by yellow vein mosaic diseases is 0.1% each. Seeds should have a minimum purity of 99% and germination of 60%. Maximum inert matter content permitted is 1%. No seeds of other crops or weeds are permitted and maximum moisture content should not exceed 7%.

Bitter gourd

Taking two vegetable harvests and then leaving the crop for seed production is economical. Ripe fruits of 24 days maturity in Preethi, when the whole fruits turn to bright orange colour, can be harvested for seed extraction. Seeds may be dried in the sun, avoiding peak sunshine hours of 12 noon to 3 p.m. Seeds can be stored in 700 gauge thick polythene bags.

Snake gourd

Fruits can be harvested for seed extraction 36 days after anthesis (in TA 19), when yellowing of fruits start from the stylar end. Big and medium sized fruits (above 85 cm length and 2 kg weight in Kaumudi) give maximum quantity of quality seeds.

Oriental pickling melon

Harvest fully ripe fruits with deep orange colour (30 days after anthesis in Mudicode Local), when the vines wither. Select big and medium sized fruits (above 1.25 kg in Mudicode Local) for quality seeds.

Ash gourd

Ash gourd fruits of 70 days maturity after anthesis are suitable for seed extraction. At this stage the vines wither; and the sticky thick ashy coating on the fruits dries into white powder, which can be removed on rubbing. Fruits of medium and large size (above 5 kg in KAU Local) give bolder, quality seeds. It is advisable to have a post-harvest storage of fruits for three months to get higher germination. Manual extraction of pulp from the fruits and fermenting the pulp for 48 hours is better to get quality seeds without mechanical damage. Pre-storage treatment of seeds with captan @ 2.5 g/kg and storing in sealed polythene bags of 700 gauge thickness is the best for seed storage.

Vegetable cowpea

Dried pods can be harvested for seed purpose. These pods are further dried in the sun before seed extraction. Good drying and pre-storage seed treatment of seeds (with carbaryl 10% D @ 10 g / kg seeds or lindane 5% D @ 20 g / kg seed and thiram or captan @ 2.5 g / kg seed) is essential to protect them from Bruchus and fungal infestations.

Amaranth

It is economical to take one vegetable harvest at 30 days after planting and then leaving the crop for seed production.

NON-CHEMICAL CONTROL OF PESTS OF VEGETABLES

2008-11-13T06:26:00.001-08:00

NON-CHEMICAL CONTROL OF PESTS OF VEGETABLES

The American serpentine leaf miner is a recently introduced polyphagous pest infesting crops like cucurbits, brinjal, cowpea, sesame, groundnut and ornamentals. Larvae mine into the leaves and exhibit irregular serpentine like lines. As a result of the attack, leaves dry up and cause extensive damage. Spray neem oil emulsion for controlling the pest.
Amaranth leaf webber and grasshopper, okra leaf roller, epilachna beetle on brinjal and bitter gourd, aphids, jassids and mealy bugs on brinjal and okra can be controlled by 4% leaf extracts of neem / thevetia / clerodendron with soap water. Okra fruits can be protected from infestation by fruit borers by spraying 4% leaf extracts of thevetia / neem.

Preparation of plant extract emulsion

Soak 400 g of leaf powder (leaves dried under shade and powdered) in one litre of water for 24 hours and filter though muslin cloth. Dissolve 400 g of ordinary bar soap shavings in 9 litres of water. Pour this soap solution to the plant extract and mix thoroughly. This forms 4% emulsion of plant extract.

CROP HUSBANDRY-MINOR VEGETABLES CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-13T06:20:00.000-08:00

MINOR VEGETABLES

Dolichos bean (Lablab purpureus)

Pusa Early Prolific and Arka Vijay are the common pole and bush varieties, respectively. Pole varieties are sown in pits (three plants per pit) at a spacing of 1.25 x 0.75 m and bush varieties in ridges and furrows at a spacing of 60 x 15 cm. Seeds are to be sown during July-August. The plants are trailed over pandals, trellis or stakes. FYM is applied at the rate of 20 t/ha. N:P2O5: K2O recommendation for the crop is 50:100:50 kg/ha. The leaf caterpillar is a common pest of the crop. It is also affected by Fusarium wilt, collar rot, anthracnose and powdery mildew. Average yield is 6-10 t/ha.

Winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus)

The common varieties in use are Revathy, PT-62, PT-16, PT-49 and PT-2. Seeds at the rate of 15 to 20 kg/ha are planted at a spacing of 125 x 50 cm during August-September and are trailed over pandal, trellis or stakes. FYM is applied at the rate of 20 t/ha. N, P2O5 and K2O recommendation for the crop is 50:100:50 kg/ha. The crop is comparatively free from pests and diseases. Average yield is 10-15 t/ha.

Cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba)

Pusa Naubahar and Pusa Sadabahar are the common varieties. Seeds at the rate of 10 to 12 kg/ha are planted at a spacing of 45-60 x 20-30 cm in February-March and June-July. During rainy season, the seeds are sown 2-3 cm deep on ridges and in furrows during summer months. FYM is applied at the rate of 25 t/ha. N, P2O5 and K2O recommendation for the crop is 20:60:80 kg/ha. Aphids and powdery mildew are the common pest and disease of the crop. Average yield is 5 to 6 t/ha.

Sword bean (Canavalia spp.)

There are two types of sword bean based on seed colour. White seeded varieties are bushy in nature whereas red seeded varieties are trailed over pandals. Pole type varieties are to be planted at a spacing of 4 x 3 m whereas bush type varieties are to be planted at 60 x 60 cm. May-June and September-October are the usual sowing time and the seed rate followed is one or two seeds per pit. FYM is applied at the rate of 5 t/ha. The N:P2O5: K2O mixture (7:10:5) may be applied as basal dose and top dressing at several splits. There is no serious pest or disease incidence in the crop. Average yield is 10-15 kg per plant.

Clove bean (Ipomoea muricata)

The crop can be grown throughout the year and are trailed over trellis or stakes. The seeds @ 6-7 kg/ha are planted at a spacing of 1.0 x 0.6 m. FYM is applied at the rate of 10 t/ha. N:P2O5:K2O recommendation for the crop is 35:50:25 kg/ha. There is no serious pest or disease incidence in the crop. Average yield is 5-6 t/ha.

Little gourd (Coccinia grandis)

Local varieties are grown in May-June and September-October by trailing over pandals and stakes. Stem cuttings with three or four nodes and 30-40 cm length, selected from high yielding female vines, are used as planting material. These are planted at a spacing of 4 x 3 m. Farm yard manure at the rate of 25 kg per pit is given in two doses. No serious pests or diseases are reported except mild attack of fruit flies and gall insects.

Smooth gourd (Luffa cylindrica)

Pusa Chickni is the common variety in use. The crop is planted in February-March and May-June at a spacing of 2 x 2 m. The seed rate is 2.5-3 kg/ha. The crop is trailed over pandal, stakes or trellis. FYM at the rate of 25 t/ha is given in two doses. N:P2O5:K2O recommended for the crop is 70:25:25 kg/ha. No serious pests or diseases are reported. The average yield is 10-15 t/ha.

Ridge gourd (Luffa acutangula)

The important varieties are Haritham, Pusa Nasdhar and Co-2. The crop is usually sown during February-March and May-June. Seed rate recommended is 2.5-3.0 kg/ha with a spacing of 2 x 2 m. FYM @ 25 t/ha and N:P2O5:K2O @ 70:25:25 kg/ha are recommended. It is usually trailed over pandals or trellis. Average yield is 10 to 15 t/ha.

Bell pepper (Capsicum annuum var. grossum)

Hungarian Wax, California Wonder and Early Calwonder are the promising varieties. Plant the crop during September-October at a spacing of 60 x 30 cm. The seed rate is 400-600 g/ha. Raising of seedlings, transplanting, irrigation etc. are same as in chilli. FYM at the rate of 25 t/ha and N:P2O5:K2O @ 150:75:50 kg/ha are to be given. The average yield is 12-15 t/ha.

Drumstick (Moringa oleifera)

The major planting season is May-June. Stem cuttings of 1.0-1.5 m length and 15-20 cm girth are used as planting material. Plant the cuttings in polybags and later sprouted cuttings can be shifted to main field. For one hectare 625 cuttings are required. These are planted at a spacing of 4 x 4 m. FYM at the rate of 10-20 kg per pit and N: P2O5:K2O @ 60:80:40 g per pit are recommended. Green caterpillar and hairy caterpillar are the common pests. The average yield is 10-15 kg per tree per year.

Chekkurmanis (Sauropus androgynus)

Stem cuttings of 6-12 months old, 20-30 cm length are to be planted in May-June. These are usually grown on borders of kitchen gardens. To check the height of the plant and to get frequent harvests, the tips are clipped off intermittently. FYM at the rate of 5 kg per plant per year and N:P2O5:K2O (7:10:5) mixture @ 30 g per plant are recommended. The average yield is 2-5 kg/m2 per year.

Indian spinach (Basella sp.)

Seeds or stem cuttings of 20-30 cm length are to be planted during May-June and September-October. The spacing recommended is 1 m x 0.6 m. These are usually trailed over pandals or stakes. FYM at the rate of 2-5 kg/m2 is to be given. The average yield is 1-2.5 kg/m2.

Water leaf (Talinum triangulare)

This is a shade loving leafy vegetable grown in May-June and September-October. Semi hard stem cuttings of 10-15 cm length are planted at a spacing of 30 x 10 cm. FYM at the rate of 2-5 kg/m2 is given. The average yield is 2.0-2.5 kg/m2.

Curry leaf (Murraya koenigii)

It is usually planted in May-June. Root suckers are used as planting material. The recommended spacing is 4 x 4 m with 625 plants per hectare. FYM at the rate of 10 kg per plant per year is given. N:P2O5:K2O @ 60:80:40 g per adult plant per year is recommended. Major pests are citrus butterfly and psyllid. Diaphorina pink disease is also seen. The average yield is 2-2.5 kg/m2.

CROP HUSBANDRY-GARLIC CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-13T06:17:00.000-08:00

GARLIC (Allium sativum)
Garlic requires cool and moist period during vegetative growth and a dry spell during maturity of the bulbs. Fertile, well-drained loamy soils are ideal for garlic cultivation. Heavy clay soils may result in deformed bulbs. In high ranges of Kerala garlic can be planted during October-November.

Varieties: Ooty-1, G 50

Planting requirements

Cloves or bulbils are used for propagation. For planting one hectare, 500 kg of cloves is required. The cloves for planting should be stored for 2-3 months after harvest and cloves weighing 4 g are ideal for planting. The cloves should be soaked in water followed by dipping for 15 minutes in a solution containing 1 ml of dimecron and 1 g of carbendazim dissolved in 1 litre of water for 15 minutes. After drying in shade, cloves can be used for planting.
Dig the land thoroughly and prepare beds of 15 cm height at a width of 1 m and of convenient length. The cloves should be dibbled at a spacing of 15 x 8 cm. Germination will start on the fifth day and it will be completed within 10-15 days.

Manuring

Apply N:P2O5: K2O @ 60:120:120 kg/ha 20 days after transplanting (DAP). Topdressing of N should be done @ 60 kg/ha, 45 DAP.

Aftercultivation

Earthing up should be done 60 DAP

Plant protection

To control thrips and foliar nematode, spray 1 ml of dimecron dissolved in 1 litre of water. To control blast, spray mancozeb (2 g/litre).

Harvest

Harvesting can be done 120-130 DAP. Yield may vary from 5-10 t/ha.

CROP HUSBANDRY-POTATO CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-13T06:05:00.000-08:00

POTATO (Solanum tuberosum)

Potato can be successfully cultivated in the high ranges of Kerala. It is being cultivated in the rain shadow areas of Idukki district throughout the year.
A day temperature of 20-30ºC is optimum for growth and tuberisation in potato. Tuber formation is adversely affected, if the temperature goes above 30ºC.

Season

Crops can be raised as shown below in the eastern part of Idukki district.

Summer: March-April
Autumn: August-December
Spring: January-February

Varieties

Among the high yielding varieties, Kufri Jyothi (early), Kufri Muthu (medium), and Kufri Dewa (late) can be tried in the high ranges of Kerala.

Soil

Loose friable sandy loam or silt loam, rich in organic matter are ideal for potato. Hard clay should be avoided. Optimum pH range is 5.2-7.0

Planting

Whole potato tuber or cut pieces (50-60 g size) longitudinally cut from bud-end to stem-end can be used for plating. For planting 1 ha, 1000-2000 kg seed tubers are required. Seed tubers are treated with 1 ppm of GA 3 for one hour and then dried in shade for getting uniform sprouting. Tubers are filled in gunny bags after drying and kept in vertical position in well-ventilated dark room for 10 days for encouraging sprouting. Seed pieces should be treated with mancozeb (@ 1 kg in 450 litres of water) before planting to protect them from soil borne diseases.
Tubers can be planted on ridges 50-60 cm wide at a spacing of 15-20 cm between the plants. Earthing up is needed during the growing phase (30 days after planting) and 70 days after planting.

Manuring

A basal application of FYM (20 t/ha) is required during field preparation. Apply 60 kg N, 100 kg P2O5 and 120 kg K2O as basal. Topdressing with 60 kg N, 30 days after planting at the time of first earthing up is essential.

Plant protection

Early blight and late blight are the important fungal diseases. Spraying zineb (2 g per litre of water) is effective to control early blight. Copper fungicides can control late blight. Cut worms, aphids and jassids are common pests of potato. Dusting with carbaryl 10 % DP immediately after planting can control cut worms. Spraying endosulfan @ 1.5 ml per litre controls leaf eating caterpillars. To control aphids and jassids spraying metasystox or dimethoate (1 ml per litre) is effective.

CROP HUSBANDRY-RADISH CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-13T06:02:00.000-08:00

RADISH (Raphanus sativus)
Radish can be grown in high ranges from June to January. Well drained sandy loam soils are best suited for the crop.

Varieties

Japanese White, Arka Nishanth, Pusa Chethki, Pusa Reshmi, Pusa Desi and Bombay Red Long

Planting requirement

Seed rate is 7 to 8 kg per hectare. It is usually grown on ridges to facilitate good root production. Ridges of about 20 cm height are taken 45 cm apart and plants are grown 10 cm apart on the rows. The seed is mixed with fine sand and sown in rows by hand, covered with soil to make it firm around it.

Manures and fertilizers

Apply 20 t/ha FYM as basal. N: P2O5: K2O 75:37.5:37.5 kg/ha is the fertilizer requirement. Full dose of P2O5 and K2O and half dose of N are applied as basal. Remaining half dose of nitrogen is applied as topdressing when the plant starts growing vigorously.

Aftercultivation

It is necessary that enough soil moisture is available to help uniform seed germination and growth of plant. Thinning may be done at 10 cm distance as in carrot. Weeding should be done at regular intervals to keep down weeds. Shallow hoeing is necessary to facilitate root growth. When the roots start growing, earthing up should be done.

CROP HUSBANDRY-BEET ROOT CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-13T05:59:00.000-08:00

BEET ROOT (Beta vulgaris)

Beet root can be grown in high ranges from August to January. Well-drained sandy loam soils are best suited for the crop.

Varieties: Detroit Dark Red and Imperator

Planting requirements

Seed rate is 7 to 8 kg/ha. It is usually grown on ridges to facilitate good root production. Ridges of about 20 cm height are formed 45 cm apart and seeds sown 15-20 cm apart on the rows. The seeds are mixed with fine sand and placed in rows by hand and covered with soil to make it firm around it.

Manures and fertilizers

Apply FYM 20 t/ha as basal. N:P2O5:K2O 75:37.5:37.5 kg/ha is recommended. Full dose of P2O5 and K2O and half dose of N are applied as basal. Remaining half dose of nitrogen is applied as topdressing when the plant starts growing vigorously.

Aftercultivation

It is necessary that enough soil moisture is available to help uniform seed germination and growth of plant. Thinning the population may be done as in carrot. Weeding should be done at regular intervals to keep down the weeds. Shallow hoeing is necessary to facilitate root growth. When the root starts growing, earthing up should be done.

CROP HUSBANDRY-CARROT CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-13T05:57:00.000-08:00

CARROT (Daucus carota)Carrot can be grown in high ranges from August to January. Well-drained sandy loam soil is best suited for the crop.

Varieties

Pusa Kesar, Nantes, Pusa Meghali

Planting requirements

Seed rate is 5-6 kg/ha. It is usually sown on ridges to facilitate good root production. Ridges of about 20 cm height are made 45 cm apart and seeds sown 10 cm apart on the rows. The seed is mixed with fine sand and sown in rows by hand and covered with soil to make it firm around it.

Manures and fertilizers

Apply 25 t/ha FYM before sowing and a fertilizer dose of 37.5 kg N, 62.5 kg P2O5 and 50 kg K2O / ha as basal. Topdressing with 37.5 kg N / ha may be done one month after sowing.

Aftercultivation

It is necessary that enough soil moisture is available to help uniform seed germination and growth of plant. Uproot excess seedlings (thinning) three weeks after sowing leaving a plant to plant spacing of 10 cm to facilitate better tuber growth. Weeding should be done at regular intervals to keep down the weeds. Shallow hoeing is necessary to facilitate root growth. When the root starts growing, earthing up should be done.

CROP HUSBANDRY-CAULIFLOWER CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-13T05:53:00.000-08:00

CAULIFLOWER (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis)Cauliflower can be grown during winter in high ranges. Well-drained sandy loam to clay loam soils are suited for the crop.

Varieties

Pusa Early Synthetic, Himani, Swathi, Pusa Deepali, Early Patna, 74-6-C

Planting requirements

Since it is a cool season crop, sowing is to be done from Aug-Nov. Seed rate is 600-750 g/ha. Seeds are to be sown in nursery beds. Three to five week old seedlings are used for transplanting. Field is prepared by three or four ploughings. Seedlings are transplanted at a spacing of 60 x 45 cm.

Manures and fertilizers

Apply FYM or compost @ 25 t/ha and fertilizers @ 150:100:125 N:P2O5:K2O kg/ha. Apply full dose of P2O5 and half dose of N and K2O before transplanting and remaining N and K one month after transplanting.

Aftercultivation

A continuous supply of moisture is necessary for proper development of curds. Very shallow hoeing should be done to remove the weeds and to loosen the soil for better aeration. In order to produce large curds, earth up the plant one month after transplanting.

CROP HUSBANDRY-CABBAGE CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-13T05:50:00.000-08:00

CABBAGE (Brassica oleracea var. capitata)Cabbage can be grown in high ranges during winter season. Well-drained sandy loam to clay loam soil is suited for this crop.

Varieties

September, Pusa Drum Head, Golden Acre, Kaveri, Ganga, Sri Ganesh and Pride of India.

Planting requirements

Since it is a cool season crop, sowing is done from August-November. Seed rate is 500-750 g/ha. Seeds are to be sown in nursery beds. Three to five weeks old seedlings are used for transplanting. Field is prepared by three or four ploughings. Seedlings are transplanted at a spacing of 45 x 45 cm.

Manures and fertilizers

Apply 25 t/ha FYM or compost. Fertilizer dose is N:P2O5:K2O 150:100:125 kg/ha. Apply full dose of P2O5 and half dose of N and K2O before transplanting. Apply remaining half dose one month after transplanting.

Aftercultivation

A continuous supply of moisture is necessary for proper development of heads. Very shallow hoeing should be done to remove weeds and to make the soil better aerated. In order to produce large heads, earth up plants one month after transplanting.

CROP HUSBANDRY-TOMATO CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-13T05:47:00.000-08:00

TOMATO (Lycopersicon esculentum)
Varieties

Bacterial wilt resistant varieties: Sakthi, Mukthi, Anagha
High yielding variety: Pusa Ruby

Seed rate: 400 g/ha

Raising seedlings
Tomato is a transplanted vegetable. Seeds are sown in the nursery and one-month-old seedlings are transplanted to the main field. For sowing the seeds, raised seed beds of 90 to 100 cm width and of convenient length are prepared to which well decomposed organic matter has been incorporated. After sowing the seeds, mulch with green leaves and irrigate with a rose-can daily in the morning. Remove the mulch immediately after germination of the seeds. Restrict irrigation one week before transplanting and irrigate heavily on the previous day of transplanting.

Time of planting

Transplant the seedlings during October-November for an irrigated crop.

Land preparation and transplanting

Land is prepared to a fine tilth by thorough ploughing or digging. Well rotten organic manure is incorporated in the soil and seedlings are transplanted in shallow trenches / pits / levelled lands. Transplanted seedlings may be given temporary shade for three to four days during hot days.

Spacing

Transplant the seedlings at 60 x 60 cm.

Manuring

Apply well rotten farm yard manure / compost @ 20-25 t/ha at the time of land preparation and mix well with the soil. A fertilizer dose of 75:40:25 kg N:P2O5:K2O / ha may be given. Half the dose of nitrogen, full phosphorus and half of potash may be applied as basal before transplanting. One fourth of nitrogen and half of potash may be applied 20-30 days after planting. The remaining quantity may be applied two months after planting.

Aftercultivation

Irrigate at two or three days interval. Stake the plants if necessary. Weeding followed by fertilizer application and earthing up may be done at one and two months after transplanting.

Plant protection

For avoiding damping off of the seedlings in the nursery, sow the seeds as thin as possible in raised beds prepared in the open area. Spray nursery and main field with 1% Bordeaux mixture at monthly intervals. Uproot and destroy the plants affected by bacterial wilt and mosaic.
Cultivate resistant varieties like Sakthi, Mukthi and Anagha in bacterial wilt prone areas.

CROP HUSBANDRY-CHILLI CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-13T05:40:00.000-08:00

CHILLI (Capsicum annuum)

Varieties

High yielding varieties: Jwalasakhi, Jwalamukhi, Jwala, Pant C-1, K-2
Bacterial wilt resistant varieties: Manjari, Ujwala, Anugraha

Seed rate: 1.0 kg/ha

Raising seedlings

Chilli is a transplanted crop. Seeds are sown in the nursery and one-month-old seedlings are transplanted to the main field. For sowing the seeds, raised seed-beds of 90 to 100 cm width and of convenient length are prepared to which well decomposed organic matter has been incorporated. After sowing the seeds, mulch with green leaves and irrigate with a rose-can daily in the morning. Remove the mulch immediately after germination of the seeds. Restrict irrigation one week before transplanting and irrigate heavily on the previous day of transplanting.

Time of planting

For a rainfed crop, transplant the seedlings during May-June before the onset of southwest monsoon. Planting can also be done during Sept-October for an irrigated crop.

Land preparation and transplanting

Land is prepared to a fine tilth by thorough ploughing / digging. Well rotten organic manure is incorporated in the soil and seedlings are transplanted in shallow trenches / pits during May or on ridges / level lands during rainy season. Transplanted seedlings may also be given temporary shade for three to four days during summer.

Spacing

Transplant less spreading varieties at 45 x 45 cm. For spreading cultivars like White Kanthari provide a wider spacing of 75 x 45-60 cm.

Manuring

Apply well rotten FYM / compost @ 20-25 t/ha at the time of land preparation and mix well with the soil.
A fertilizer dose of 75:40:25 kg N:P2O5: K2O / ha may be given. Half of nitrogen, full phosphorus and half of potash may be applied as basal dose before transplanting. One fourth of nitrogen and half of potash may be applied 20-30 days after planting. The remaining quantity may be applied two months after planting.

Aftercultivation

Irrigate at three to four days interval during summer. Stake the plants if necessary. Weeding followed by fertilizer application and earthing up may be done at one and two months after transplanting.

Plant protection

For avoiding damping off of the seedlings in the nursery, sow the seeds as thin as possible in raised beds prepared in the open area during summer months. Spray nursery and main field with 1% Bordeaux mixture at monthly intervals during rainy season. Uproot and destroy the plants affected by bacterial wilt and mosaic.
Cultivate resistant varieties like Manjari, Ujwala and Anugraha in bacterial wilt prone areas.
Spray quinalphos 0.025% for control of mealy bugs and lace wings. Dimethoate at 0.05% is effective for controlling mites, aphids and other sucking insects.

CROP HUSBANDRY-BRINJAL CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-08T06:24:00.000-08:00

BRINJAL (Solanum melongena)

Varieties

Surya, Swetha and Haritha (bacterial wilt resistant open pollinated varieties), Neelima (bacterial wilt resistant F1 hybrid), Pusa Purple Cluster.

Seed rate: 370-500 g/ha

Raising seedlings

Brinjal is a transplanted vegetable. Seeds are sown in the nursery and one-month-old seedlings are transplanted to the main field. For sowing the seeds, raised seed beds of 90 to 100 cm width and convenient length are prepared in open space with fertile topsoil to which well decomposed organic matter has been incorporated. After sowing the seeds, mulch with green leaves and irrigate with a rose-can daily in the morning. Remove the mulch immediately after germination of the seeds. Restrict irrigation one week before transplanting and irrigate heavily on the previous day of transplanting.

Time of planting

For rainfed crop, transplant the seedlings during May-June before the onset of southwest monsoon. Planting can also be done during September-October for irrigated crop.

Land preparation and transplanting

Land is prepared to a fine tilth by thorough ploughing or digging. Well rotten organic manure is incorporated in the soil and seedlings are transplanted in shallow trenches / pits during May or on ridges / levelled lands during rainy season. Transplanted seedlings may be given temporary shade for 3-4 days during summer.

Spacing

Transplant less spreading varieties like Swetha and Surya at 60 x 60 cm. For spreading varieties Haritha and Neelima, provide wider spacing of 75-90 x 60 cm.

Manuring

Apply well rotten FYM / compost @ 20-25 t/ha at the time of land preparation and mix well with the soil.
A fertilizer dose of 75:40:25 kg N:P2O5: K2O / ha may be given. Half the dose of nitrogen, full phosphorus and half of potash may be applied as basal dose before transplanting. One fourth of nitrogen and half of potash may be applied 20-30 days after planting. The remaining quantities may be applied two months after planting.
Application of 75:25:25 kg N:P2O5:K2O / ha is optimum for getting maximum yield of fruits for the variety Swetha in the reclaimed alluvial soils of Kuttanad. However, the economic optimum dose was found to be 60:20:25 kg of N:P2O5:K2O / ha.

Aftercultivation

Irrigate at three or four days interval during summer. Stake the plants if necessary. Weeding followed by fertilizer application and earthing up may be done one and two months after transplanting.

Plant protection

For avoiding damping off of the seedlings in the nursery, sow the seeds as thin as possible in the raised beds prepared in the open area during summer months.
Follow mechanical removal and destruction of pest / disease affected portions for control of fruit and shoot borer and Phomopsis fruit rot. Spray carbaryl 0.15% at an interval of 15-20 days to control fruit and shoot borer under large-scale cultivation.
Uproot plants affected by little leaf and spray insecticides for further control.
Cultivate resistant varieties like Surya, Swetha and Haritha and the hybrid Neelima in bacterial wilt prone areas.
The root knot nematode can be managed by the application of Bacillus macerans or B. circulans 1.2 x 106 cells per m2 in nursery bed two days before sowing (ad hoc recommendation).
For the control of pests, application of granules of carbofuran at the rate of 0.5 kg ai/ha or phorate at the rate of 1 kg ai/ha at seeding followed by need based application of foliar insecticides has been recommended. The application of granules is recommended only at the time of seeding.
In general, insecticides of plant origin may be used, as far as possible.

CROP HUSBANDRY-ASH GOURD CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-08T06:19:00.001-08:00

ASH GOURD (Benincasa hispida)

Season

Ash gourd can be successfully grown during January-March and September-December. For rainfed crop, sowing can also be started after the receipt of the first few showers during May-June.

Varieties: KAU Local, Indu

Seed rate: 0.75-1.0 kg/ha

Preparation of land

Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cm depth are taken at 4.5 x 2.0 m spacing. Well rotten FYM and fertilizers are mixed with topsoil in the pit.

Sowing

Seeds are sown at the rate of four or five per pit. Remove unhealthy plants after two weeks and retain two or three plants per pit.

Manuring

Apply FYM @ 20-25 t/ha as basal dose along with half dose of N (35 kg) and full dose of P2O5 (25 kg) and K2O (25 kg/ha). The remaining dose of N (35 kg) can be applied in two equal split doses at the time of vining and at the time of full blooming.

Aftercultivation

During the initial stages of growth, irrigate at an interval of three or four days. Irrigate on alternate days during flowering and fruiting. For trailing, spread dried twigs on the ground. Conduct weeding, and raking of the soil at the time of fertilizer application. Earthing up may be done during rainy season.

Pests

Fruit fly, epilachna beetle and red pumpkin beetle are important pests affecting ash gourd. They can be controlled as given under bitter gourd. Aphids can be controlled by spraying malathion 0.05% or quinalphos 0.03%.

Diseases

Powdery mildew and mosaic are important diseases in ash gourd. They can be controlled as in bitter gourd.
Harvesting can be done only after 10 days (at least) of insecticide / fungicide application. The fruit should be washed thoroughly in water before cooking.

CROP HUSBANDRY-PUMPKIN CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-08T06:15:00.000-08:00

PUMPKIN (Cucurbita moschata)

Season

Pumpkin can be successfully grown during January-March and September-December. For the rainfed crop, sowing can also be started after the receipt of the first few showers during May-June.

Varieties: Ambili, Suvarna and Saras

Seed rate: 1.0 to 1.5 kg/ha

Preparation of land

Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cm depth are taken at a spacing of 4.5 x 2.0 m. Well rotten FYM and fertilizers are mixed with topsoil in the pit.

Sowing

Four of five seeds are sown per pit. Remove unhealthy plants after 2 weeks and retain three plants per pit.

Manuring

Apply FYM @ 20-25 t/ha as basal dose along with half dose of N (35 kg) and full dose of P2O5 (25 kg) and K2O (25 kg). The remaining dose of N (35 kg) can be applied in two equal split doses at the time of vining and at the time of full blooming.

Aftercultivation

During the initial stages of growth, irrigate at an interval of three or four days. Irrigate on alternate days during flowering and fruiting periods. For trailing, spread dried twigs on the ground. Conduct weeding and raking of the soil at the time of fertilizer application. Earthing up may be done during rainy season.

Plant protection

Pests

Fruit flies, epilachna beetle and red pumpkin beetle are important pests affecting pumpkin. They can be controlled as in case of bitter gourd.

Diseases

Downy mildew, powdery mildew and mosaic are important diseases affecting pumpkin.
Harvesting can be done only after 10 days (at least) of insecticide / fungicide application. The fruits should be washed thoroughly in water before cooking.

CROP HUSBANDRY-BOTTLE GOURD CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-08T06:10:00.000-08:00

BOTTLE GOURD (Lagenaria siceraria)

Season

Bottle gourd can be successfully grown during January-March and Sept-December. For the rainfed crop, sowing can also be started after the receipt of the first few showers during May-June.

Varieties

Pusa Summer Prolific Long, Arka Bahar

Seed rate: 3-4 kg/ha

Preparation of land

Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cm depth are taken at 3 m x 3 m spacing for growing on pandals. For trailing on the ground, make pits at a spacing of 2 m in rows 3-4 m apart. Well rotten FYM and fertilizers are mixed with topsoil in the pit.

Sowing

Four or five seeds are sown per pit. Remove unhealthy plants after two weeks and retain three plants per pit.

Manuring

Apply farm yard manure at the rate of 20-25 t/ha as basal dose along with half dose of N (35 kg) and full dose of P2O5 (25 kg) and K2O (25 kg/ha). The remaining dose of N (35 kg) can be applied in several split doses at fortnightly intervals.

Aftercultivation

During the initial stages of growth, irrigate at an interval of three or four days. Irrigate on alternate days during flowering and fruiting periods. Trailing can be done either on pandals or on the ground.
Conduct weeding and raking of the soil at the time of fertilizer application. Earthing up may be done during rainy season.

Pests

The important pests are epilachna beetle and red pumpkin beetle. They can be controlled by adopting measures recommended under bitter gourd.

Diseases

Downy mildew and powdery mildew are important diseases in bottle gourd. Refer control measures recommended for bitter gourd.
Harvesting can be done only after 10 days (at least) of insecticide / fungicide application. The fruits should be washed thoroughly in water before cooking.

CROP HUSBANDRY-WATER MELON CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-08T06:05:00.000-08:00

WATER MELON (Citrullus lanatus)

Season: The ideal season is Dec-April.

Varieties: Sugar Baby, Arka Jyothi

Seed rate: 1 to 1.5 kg/ha

Spacing: 3.0 m x 2.0 m

Preparation of land

Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cm depth are taken. Well rotten FYM and fertilizers are mixed with topsoil in the pit and four or five seeds are sown in a pit. Remove unhealthy plants after two weeks and retain two or three plants per pit.

Manuring

Apply FYM @ 20-25 t/ha as basal dose along with half dose of N (35 kg) and full doses of P2O5 (25 kg) and K2O (25 kg/ha). The remaining dose of N (35 kg) can be applied in two equal splits at the time of vining and full blooming.

Aftercultivation

During the initial stages of growth, irrigate at an interval of three or four days. Irrigate on alternate days during flowering and fruiting. When fruits are mature, the frequency of irrigation may be reduced.
For trailing the water melon, spread dried twigs on the ground. Conduct weeding and raking of the soil at the time of fertilizer application.

Pests

The important pests are red pumpkin beetle and epilachna beetle. They can be controlled by adopting measures suggested for bitter gourd.

Diseases

Downy mildew and powdery mildew are important diseases affecting water melon. Control them by adopting measures recommended for bitter gourd.
Harvesting can be done only after 10 days (at least) of insecticide / fungicide application. Only well ripe fruits should be harvested.

CROP HUSBANDRY-CUCUMBER CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-08T05:58:00.000-08:00

CUCUMBER (Cucumis sativus) &
ORIENTAL PICKLING MELON (Cucumis melo var. conomon)

Cucumber and oriental pickling melon are important cucurbits grown in Kerala. Cucumber is mainly used as a salad crop whereas oriental pickling melon is largely used after cooking.

Season

The ideal seasons are January-March and September-December.

Varieties

Mudicode, Arunima and Saubhagya are high yielding varieties of oriental pickling melon. Cucumber varieties such as Pusa Seethal, Poinsette, Poona Khira are exclusively used for salad purpose.

Seed rate: 0.5-0.75 kg/ha

Spacing: 2.0 m x 1.5 m

Preparation of land

Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cm depth are taken. Well rotten FYM and fertilizers are mixed with topsoil in the pit and four or five seeds are sown in a pit. Remove unhealthy plants after two weeks and retain three plants per pit.

Manuring

Apply FYM @ 20-25 t/ha as basal dose along with half dose of N (35 kg) and full dose of P2O5 (25 kg) and K2O (25 kg/ha). The remaining dose of N (35 kg) can be applied in two equal split doses at the time of vining and at the time of full blooming.
A fertilizer dose of 70:25:25 kg N:P2O5: K2O / ha in several splits is recommended in Onattukara region. The fertilizer dose per pit would be 28:10:10 g N:P2O5:K2O.

Aftercultivation

During the initial stages of growth, irrigate at an interval of 3-4 days. Irrigate in alternate days, during flowering and fruiting.
For trailing cucumber and melon, spread dried twigs on the ground. Conduct weeding and raking of the soil at the time of fertilizer application. Earthing up may be done during rainy season.

Pests

The important pests are epilachna beetle and red pumpkin beetle. They can be controlled by adopting the measures recommended for bitter gourd.

Diseases

The important diseases are downy mildew, powdery mildew and mosaic. The control measures as recommended for bitter gourd can be adopted.
Harvesting can be done only after 10 days (at least) of insecticide / fungicide application. The fruits should be washed thoroughly in water before cooking.

CROP HUSBANDRY-SNAKE GOURD CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-08T05:48:00.000-08:00

SNAKE GOURD (Trichosanthes cucumerina)

Snake gourd is a common cucurbitaceous vegetable of Kerala.

Season

January-March and September-December are the main growing seasons.

Varieties: Kaumudi, Baby and TA-19

Seed rate: 3.0-4.0 kg/ha

Spacing: 2.0 m x 2.0 m

Sowing

Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cm depth are taken. Well rotten FYM and fertilizers are mixed with topsoil in the pit and seeds are sown @ 4-5 per pit. After two weeks remove the unhealthy plants retaining three plants per pit.

Manuring

Apply FYM @ 20-25 t/ha as basal dose along with half dose of N (35 kg) and full dose of P2O5 (25 kg) and K2O (25 kg/ha). The remaining dose of N (35 kg) is applied in several split doses at fortnightly intervals.

Aftercultivation

During the initial stages of growth irrigate at an interval of 3-4 days. Irrigate on alternate days during flowering and fruiting periods.
Erect pandals for trailing snake gourd. Conduct weeding and raking of the soil at the time of fertilizer application.

Pests

The important pests attacking snake gourd are fruit flies, epilachna beetle and red pumpkin beetle. Control measures recommended for bitter gourd can be followed in this case also.

Diseases

The important diseases are downy mildew and mosaic. The control measures as stated under bitter gourd can be adopted.
Harvesting can be done only after 10 days (at least) of insecticide / fungicide application. The fruits should be washed thoroughly in water before cooking.

CROP HUSBANDRY-BITTER GOURD CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-08T05:41:00.000-08:00

BITTER GOURD (Momordica charantia)

Bitter gourd is an important cucurbit vegetable of Kerala.

Season

January-March and September-December are the ideal seasons. For the rainfed crop, sowing can be started after the receipt of first few showers during May-June.

Varieties

Priya, Preethi, Priyanka and Arka Harit are high yielding varieties. Priyanka is recommended for acid alluvial soils of Kerala.

Seed rate: 5.0-6.0 kg/ha

Spacing: 2.0 m x 2.0 m

Sowing

Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cm depth are taken. Well rotten FYM and fertilizers are mixed with topsoil in the pit and seeds are sown @ 4-5 per pit. Unhealthy plants are removed after two weeks and only 3 plants are retained per pit.

Manuring

Apply FYM @ 20-25 t/ha as basal dose along with half dose of N (35 kg) and full doses of P2O5 (25 kg) and K2O (25 kg). The remaining dose of N (35 kg) can be applied in several split doses at fortnightly intervals.

Aftercultivation

During the initial stages of growth, irrigate at 3-4 days interval, and alternate days during flowering/fruiting. Irrigation at 15 mm CPE (approximately at 3 days interval for sandy loam soils) is more economical than irrigating once in two days especially during summer months for water economy. Erect pandals when the plants start vining. Conduct weeding and raking of the soil at the time of fertilizer application. Earthing up is done during rainy season.

Pests

Fruit fly (Dacus cucurbitae)
Apply carbaryl 10% DP in pit before sowing of seeds to destroy the pupae. In homestead gardens the fruits may be covered with polythene, cloth or paper bags to ensure mechanical protection. In large gardens apply carbaryl 0.2% or malathion 0.2% suspension containing sugar or jaggery at 10 g/l at fortnightly intervals at flowering and fruit initiation. Spray as coarse droplets on the ventral surface of leaves. Remove and destroy affected and decayed fruits.
It can also be effectively controlled by the use of banana fruit traps coupled with the removal and destruction of infested fruits. It is more efficient than two sprayings with insecticides. The trap is prepared by applying carbofuran granules at the cut ends of ripe banana fruits (variety Palayankodan). Traps are to be set at a distance of 2 m after a border row and they may be replenished after 7 to 9 days. Start bait trapping just before flowering.

Epilachna beetle

Remove and destroy egg masses, grubs and adults occurring on leaves. Spray carbaryl 0.2%.

Red pumpkin beetle

Adult beetle eats the leaves, makes hole on foliage and causes damage on roots and leaves. Incorporate carbaryl 10% DP in pits before sowing the seeds to destroy grubs and pupae.

Plant lice

Apply 1.5% fish oil soap. First dissolve soap in hot water and then make up the volume. Alternatively apply dimethoate 0.05%, phosphamidon 0.05% or monocrotophos 0.05%.

Diseases

Downy mildew

It is severe during rainy season. This can be checked by spraying mancozeb 0.2% (waiting period of mancozeb is three days).

Powdery mildew

Can be controlled by spraying nitrophenol 0.05%.

Mosaic

Control the vectors by spraying dimethoate 0.05%. Uprooting and destruction of affected plants and collateral hosts should be done.

Harvesting can be done only after 10 days (at least) of insecticide / fungicide application. The fruits should be washed thoroughly in water before cooking.

2008-11-05T05:55:00.000-08:00

COLEUS (Solenostemon rotundifolius)

Coleus thrives well in tropical and subtropical regions. A well-drained medium fertile soil is suitable for its cultivation.

Season

Plant the cuttings in the main field between July and October.
Variety: Nidhi

Nursery
Raise the nursery approximately one month before planting. An area of 500 to 600 m2 is sufficient to produce cuttings required for one ha of main field. Apply 125 to 150 kg FYM in the nursery area. Plant the seed tubers at a spacing of 15 cm on the ridges taken 30 cm apart. About 170 to 200 kg of tubers is required to raise the nursery. Take the vine cutting to a length of 10-15 cm from the top portion after three weeks from planting.

Preparation of main field

Plough or dig the land to a depth of 15-20 cm and form ridges at 30 cm apart or raised beds of 60-90 cm width.

Planting

Plant the vine cutting collected from the nursery on ridges at a spacing of 30 cm or on raised beds at 30 x 15 cm spacing.

Manuring

Broadcast 10 tonnes of FYM and N:P2O5: K2O @ 30:60:50 kg per hectare and incorporate into the soil at the time of land preparation. Topdress with N and K2O at the rate of 30 and 50 kg/ha respectively at 45 days after planting.

Aftercultivation

Give weeding and earthing up, at 45 days after planting along with topdressing. Cover a portion of the vine with soil to promote tuber formation.

Plant protection

To control the root-knot nematode, plough the field deeply in summer, adopt crop rotation and destroy root residues and other plant parts by burning.

Harvesting

Harvest the crop 5 months after planting.

CROP HUSBANDRY-BHINDI(OKRA) CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-05T05:50:00.000-08:00

OKRA (Abelmoschus esculentus)

The three main planting seasons for Okra are February-March, June-July and October-November.

Varieties

Green / light green fruited: Pusa Sawani, Pusa Makhmali, IARI Selection 2, Kiran, Salkeerthi
Red fruited: Co-1, Aruna
Yellow vein mosaic resistant/tolerant: Arka Anamika, Arka Abhay, Susthira (all green fruited)

Seed rate

The seed rate is 8.5 kg/ha for the summer crop sown in February-March and 7 kg/ha for kharif crop.

Storage of seeds

Packing of okra seeds in polythene cover (700 gauge) increases the storage life up to 7 months.

Planting

For kharif crop, sow the seeds at a spacing of 60 cm between rows and 45 cm between plants. For the summer crop, soak the seeds in water for 24 hours before sowing and give a spacing of 60 x 30 cm.

Manuring

Apply FYM or compost as basal dose @ 12 t/ha. At the time of sowing, apply N, P2O5, and K2O @ 25, 8 and 25 kg/ha. Another 25 kg N per ha may be applied one month after sowing.
Note: For reclaimed soils of Kuttanad, a fertilizer dose of N:P2O5:K2O 75:5:15 kg/ha is recommended.

Aftercultivation

Give pre-sowing irrigation, if soil is not moist enough. During summer, irrigate at intervals of 2 to 3 days. Conduct weeding regularly and earth up rows during rainy season.

Plant protection

The important pests are jassids, fruit and shoot borer and root knot nematode.
Against jassids, use quinalphos, fenthion or fenitrothion as foliar sprays each at 0.05%. For controlling fruit and shoot borers, remove all drooping shoots and damaged fruits. Spray carbaryl 0.15% at intervals of 15 to 20 days. For controlling aphids, apply dimethoate 0.05%.
For the control of nematodes, apply sawdust or paddy husk at 500 g/plant or neem leaves or Eupatorium leaves at 250 g/plant in basins one week prior to planting and water daily. The effect of this treatment persists up to 75 days after sowing in summer season
Application of Bacillus macerans or B. circulans (1.2 x 106 cells per pit) before sowing is recommended for the control of root knot nematode (ad hoc recommendation).
For the control of pests, application of carbofuran granules at the rate of 0.5 kg ai / ha or phorate at the rate of 1 kg ai / ha at seeding followed by need-based application of foliar insecticides has been recommended. The application of granules is recommended only at the time of seeding.
In general, insecticides of plant origin may be used, as far as possible.

Yellow vein mosaic

This is a common disease in okra, which shows vein clearing and vein chlorosis of leaves. The yellow network of veins is very conspicuous and veins and veinlets are thickened. Fruits become small and yellowish green in colour. White fly (Bemisia tabaci) and leaf hopper (Amrasca biguttula biguttula) are vectors of this virus. Hence, their control is very important. Use of resistant varieties like Arka Anamika, Arka Abhay and Susthira, and destruction of host weeds (Croton sparsiflora and Ageratum sp.) are also effective.

CROP HUSBANDRY-VEGETABLE AMARANTH CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-05T05:43:00.000-08:00

AMARANTH (Amaranthus spp.)

Amaranth is the most popular leafy vegetable of Kerala. It can be grown throughout the year. Avoid sowing or planting of red leaved varieties during periods of heavy rain.

Varieties

Red: Kannara Local, Arun
Green: Co-1, Co-2, Co-3 and Mohini
Note: Kannara Local is a season bound variety, which comes to flowering in November-December.
Seed rate: 1.5 to 2.0 kg/ha

Preparation of land

Prepare the land by ploughing or digging followed by levelling. Then shallow trenches of width 30-35 cm are made 30 cm apart. Well rotten FYM is mixed with soil in the trenches. Transplant 20-30 day old seedlings in the shallow trenches at a distance of 20 cm in two rows. During rainy season planting shall be done on raised beds.

Manuring

Apply 50 tonnes of FYM per ha as basal dose before planting. After preparing trenches, apply N:P2O5:K2O @ 50:50:50 kg/ha. Another 50 kg of N can be applied at regular intervals as topdressing. Spraying 1% urea immediately after each harvest will increase the yield.

Plant protection

As far as possible, avoid use of insecticides or fungicides. In severe cases of leaf webber attack, spray malathion 0.1% or dust malathion 10% DP.

CROP HUSBANDRY-TOBACCO CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-05T05:35:00.000-08:00

TOBACCO (Nicotiana tabacum)

Tobacco is generally raised as a cold weather crop, the optimum temperature range being 18 to 27ºC. The crop prefers well-drained fertile soil. Acidic soils are also suitable. It is sensitive to waterlogging.

Season:
October-February

Seeds and sowing
Raised nursery beds of 1 m width and of convenient length should be prepared for raising seedlings. The beds should be manured with well rotten FYM at the rate of 1 kg/m2. About 75 g seeds sown over an area of 100 m2 will give the required number of seedlings for planting one hectare. Seeds may be mixed with fine sand or ash at the rate of 1:15 by weight and broadcast. It is covered by raking or by brushing. Watering may be done using rose-can. It is desirable to apply 1 kg of ammonium sulphate per 100 m2 of nursery in liquid form and the application is repeated at tri-weekly intervals. Seedlings will be kept in the nursery for about 8-10 weeks. Pandal may be provided for shade.

Main field planting
Seedlings are transplanted on flat beds. The nursery is irrigated well a day before planting to facilitate easy pulling out of the seedlings. Seedlings are planted 10-15 cm deep in the main field at a spacing of 85 x 85 cm.

Manuring
Cattle manure at the rate of 5-10 t/ha for cigarette tobacco and 50-60 t/ha for hookah tobacco may be applied as basal dose.
Aftercultivation
The first intercultivation may be done 12-15 days after transplanting. Thereafter, three hoeings are to be given at fortnightly intervals. Keep the field free of weeds. Irrigate as and when necessary.

Topping and de-suckering
Remove the terminal bud at the time of flowering. In the case of chewing tobacco, the number of leaves to be maintained varies from 8-15. Remove the suckers as and when produced.

Harvesting
Harvesting is done either by removing the mature leaves or by cutting the stalk when maximum leaves are matured. The harvested leaves are cured for the purpose for which the produce is meant.

Plant protection
Important pests and diseases of tobacco and their control measures are given below:

Stem borer (Phthorimoea spp.)
1. Use healthy seedlings for planting.
2. Spray the nursery with carbaryl 0.2% or endosulfan 0.05%.

Tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura)
1. Destroy egg masses and groups of caterpillars found on the leaves.
2. Prevent oviposition on nursery plants by covering the beds at night with gunny sheets.
3. Spray carbaryl 0.2% or endosulfan 0.05%.

Plant lice (Myzus persicae)
Spray fenitrothion 0.05%.

Bacterial wilt
1. Use resistant / tolerant varieties.
2. Rotate with resistant crops.
3. Do not let in irrigation water or drainage water from infested fields.
4. Discard all seedlings from infested nursery.

Damping off
1. Drench the nursery bed with cheshunt compound solution 3-4 days before sowing.
2. Spray the seedlings with mancozeb or zineb 0.3%.

Powdery mildew
Spray oxythioquinox 0.05% or dust sulphur at 45 kg/ha. Before dusting mix sulphur with sand or ash.

CROP HUSBANDRY-TEA CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-05T05:23:00.000-08:00

TEA (Camellia sinensis)

Tea grows best in areas with a maximum temperature of 16-32 ºC and a well distributed rainfall of about 150 cm per annum. Relative humidity should be around 80% most of the time and should never be less than 40%. The area should not be prone to frost. The soil should be acidic (around pH 5.0) having good drainage facility.

Varieties

Clones: UPASI-2, UPASI-8, UPASI-9, UPASI-17, TRI-2025, TRF-1
Seedlings: BSS-1, BSS-2

Propagation
The seed viability extends up to 6 months. Before sowing, seeds are put in water and only the sinkers will be used and floaters rejected. Seeds germinate in 4-6 weeks and the cracked seeds are transplanted in polythene sleeves. The plants will be ready for planting in the main field in 9 months.

Manuring of nursery plants

Composition of tea nursery mixture is as follows:

Ammonium phosphate (20:20) 60 parts
Potassium sulphate 24 parts
(or) Muriate of potash 20 parts
Magnesium sulphate 16 parts

Stock solution
Dissolve 30 g of the mixture in 10 litres of water. This can be sprayed over 2 m2 (450 plants) at weekly interval.

Field preparation

In the case of new planting, in order to avoid the incidence of root diseases, after felling the trees, remove the root system to the extent possible. Clear the jungle growth but do not burn, the ash being alkaline will increase the pH.

In the case of replanting, remove old Grevillea (silver oak) after ring barking, leaving the young ones in the field. Level the land into an even slope to facilitate easy cultural operations and proper drainage.

Style of planting

Up and down: 1.2 x 1.2 m (6800 plants/ha)
Contour planting, single hedge: 1.2 x 0.75 m (10,800 plants/ha)
Contour planting, double hedge: 1.35 x 0.75 x 0.75 m (13200 plants/ha)

The double hedge planting will accommodate more number of plants per unit area. Early high yield, better soil conservation, less weed growth, efficient cultural practices and better supervision are other advantages of double hedge planting.

Pitting

Pits of size 30 x 45 cm are taken. Keep the top and bottom soil separately. In clayey soil and drought-prone areas, deeper pits (60 cm) or trench planting will be advantageous.

Planting seasons
Southwest monsoon areas: June-July
Northeast monsoon areas: September-October

Planting
If the soil pH is more than 5.5, apply 100 g of powdered aluminium sulphate per pit and thoroughly mix with soil. Select seedlings of 12 months old. After planting the seedling, compact the soil surrounding the plant and apply mulch at the rate of 25 t/ha. While mulching care should be taken to keep the mulch material away from the collar region of the plant by putting a peg above the plant on the slope. Wherever mulch material is a problem, intercrop or cover crop could be raised.

Manuring

Manuring of young tea commences 2 months after planting. The ratio and source of nutrients vary according to soil reaction (pH).
The rate of fertilizer application for mature tea varies with yield and soil test values while the N:K2O ratio varies with the stage of pruning.

Method of application
Apply the recommended quantity of mixtures along the drip circle of plants. In the semi-circular furrow taken above the plant on the slope, using a Kokra-eyebrow method, apply the fertilizers when there is adequate soil moisture and when the fields are free from weeds. Punch holes of 15-22 cm depth in the soil on either side of the plants and place the rock phosphate.

Training of young tea
Proper training of young tea is essential to encourage good spread of the bushes, proper development of frames and high density of plucking points.

Centering
Cut the leader stem of the plants with secateur to arrest the apical dominance and to induce the secondary branches. Cut as low as possible leaving 8-10 mature leaves below the cut. Ensure proper recovery. Centering should be done 4-6 months after planting during humid weather when there is adequate moisture in the soil.

Tipping
First plucking of the periodic shoot is done after centering / pruning. Two-tier tipping ensures proper spread. First tipping at 35 cm height will induce the tertiaries. Second tipping at 50 cm height will increase the density of plucking points. Tipping should be done at green, semi-hardwood branches. Tipping should be done in shoots having 3-4 leaves and a bud.

Plucking
Mother leaf / step-up plucking is practiced during lean seasons. Level plucking is done during high cropping months. This is essential for better frame development.

Shade management
The best permanent shade tree for tea plantation in South India is silver oak (Grevillea robusta).

Planting of silver oak
The silver oak can be propagated through seeds. The seeds should be sown within 6 months after collection. Seed should be sown in raised beds of 1 m width and of convenient length using sandy loam soil with a pH around 6.0. Seed should be covered with thin layer of sand / ash. Germination takes place in 2-3 weeks. Use 6-9 month old seedlings for planting. Plant along tea rows at a spacing of 6 x 6 m (275 plants/ha). Apply a mixture of 100 g rock phosphate and 400 g dolomite per pit and thoroughly mix with soil prior to planting. Apply NK mixture @ 100 g/tree twice in a year; rock phosphate at 250 g/tree and borated lime 1.1 kg (1 kg dolomite + 100 g boric acid) during alternate years.

Shade regulation
Tea requires only sparse shade. So retain optimum stand of shade based on the growth of the tree, altitude of the garden and aspect of the field (south and west slopes require more shade). Thin out shade initially to 12 x 6 m after 8-10 years of planting and if required further thinning may be done to 12 x 12 m at later stages (12 years from planting). Always thin out shade prior to pruning.

Pollarding
Cutting the main stem with the objective of developing lateral branches is pollarding. Commence pollarding when the trees attain a girth of around 50 cm at elbow level. Pollarding depends on altitude (8 m height for higher altitude, 9 m for low elevation). Leave one branch in each direction and 3 to 4 tiers of branches, below the pollarding height.

Annual lopping
Cutting the erect growing branches on the laterals is lopping, which should be done before the onset of monsoon and lop only the erect branches and retain the laterals.

Shade removal
Useful age of Grevillea is 40-60 years. Remove old trees after establishing new shade.

Temporary shade

For frost prone areas: Acacia mearnsii
For mid elevations: Indigofera teysmanii
For higher altitude: Sesbania cinerescens,
Crotalaria agathiflora and Acacia elata

Planting at 3 x 3 m spacing is adopted. Temporary shade should be removed after establishment of Grevilliea after 3 years.

Plucking

Ten commandments for plucking
1. Harvest two to three leaves and a bud and / or single and two-leaf banjis.
2. Pluck the mother leaf during January-March.
3. Pluck the new level during rest of the month.
4. Pluck at 7-10 days interval during high cropping months.
5. Pluck at 12-15 days interval during low cropping months.
6. Removal of banjis and breaking-back should be a part of plucking operation.
7. Do not pluck below the level.
8. Leave immature shoots.
9. Shear-harvest during rush periods.
10. Cut lanes in older fields.

Post-pruning care
Apply copper oxychloride or sulphur + linseed oil (1:1) to large cut-ends after rejuvenation and hard pruning.

Plant protection

Nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.)
These microscopic worms infest roots, which develop to knots or galls. Affected roots become defunct and devoid of lateral roots. Plants exhibit chlorosis and stunted growth.

Control

Nursery
Heat treatment: Spread soil sand mixture (5 cm thick) on a G.I. sheet. Heat it from below. Sprinkle water periodically. Mix the soil thoroughly by turning. Optimum temperature is 60-65ºC. Soil should not be too hot to hold in the hand. Over heating of soil will lead to manganese toxicity.
Chemical treatment

Mix carbofuran 3G (700 g/m3) thoroughly with soil and make it into a bed of 1 m width, 1 cm height and of convenient length. Give profuse watering at 3-5 days interval. Completely mix the soil before filling

Mature tea
Neem cake 2 kg per bush is recommended.

White / cockchafer grubs (Holotrichia sp.)
The creamy white grub eats away the roots. The main symptoms are ring barking of stem, chlorosis and defoliation. The pest is a serious problem in areas where un-decomposed farmyard manure is used.

Control

Nursery: Heat treatment of soil and use of granular insecticides is practised.

New clearing: Drench endosulfan (1:500 dilution)
(1) At the time of planting: 500 ml per pit
(2) Post-planting treatment: Loosen the soil around the bush and pour one litre per bush.

Root mealy bug (Dysmicoccus sp.)
The pest is a problem in the nursery. It sucks sap from the callusing region, mother leaf petiole and axillary buds. This arrests root development; leads to mother-leaf fall and finally death of plant.
It can be controlled by spraying and soil drenching with chlorpyrifos or quinalphos 0.2%

Stem borers

Red coffee borer (Zeuzera coffeae)
Mostly seen in new clearings as batches. Young stems are bored and larvae tunnel downward, make holes at intervals to eject excreta and wood particles. Frass and excreta are seen around plants. Alternate host of the pest is coffee and cocoa.

Large hepialid borer (Sahyadrassus malabaricus)
This is a polyphagous pest attacking teak, eucalyptus and lantana. Thick branches (3 cm diameter) are preferred by the pest. Callus tissue and wood form food for larvae. Entrance holes are covered with frassy mat formed with chewed wood and silk.

Control

Cut the affected stem and pour quinalphos using ink filler. The holes are plugged with clay paste.

Mites
Several species of mites attack tea plants. They are dry weather pests mostly attacking mature foliage except pink and yellow mites.

Control
If infestation is more, chemicals like dicofol, quinalphos and monocrotophos will be effective.

Thrips (Scirtothrips bispinosus)
This is a major pest in all tea growing countries. Feeding causes lacerations of tissue and appears as streaks. Leaf surface becomes uneven, curled and matty. Feeding marks in bud appear as parallel lines on either side of mid-rib when leaf unfolds. Leaf margins turn yellow.

Control

Endosulfan, phosalone, monocrotophos, quinalphos and dimethoate can be used for the pest control.

Tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis theivora)
Adults and nymphs suck the sap from buds, young leaves and tender stems. Due to intensive feeding, leaves curl up, badly deform and shoots dry up. Chemical control involves spraying quinalphos + dichlorvos at spray intervals depending on the intensity of incidence

Root diseases

Black root disease (Rosellinia arcuata)
Common in areas, which were previously under jungles. The common symptoms are wilting, chlorosis, drying without defoliation and death of bush.

Control

Remove surface mulches around 10 metres. Drench soil with mancozeb 30 g per 10 litres of water. Follow phytosanitary measures. Biocontrol agents Trichoderma or Gliocladium (200 g per pit) may be incorporated at the time of planting.
Other root diseases are red root disease (Poria hypolateritia), brown root disease (Fomes noxius), root splitting disease (Armillaria mellea) and xylaria root disease (Xylaria sp.). Phytosanitary measures, use of biocontrol agents and chemical control (drench soil with tridemorph or hexaconazole 0.5%) are recommended.

Stem diseases
Collar canker (Phomopsis theae)
Seen mostly on young tea. The pathogen invades stem mostly through open wound. The predisposing factors for the disease are deep planting, planting in gravelly soils, mulching closer to collar, wounds caused by weeding implements, fertilizer application close to collar, pegging, low moisture status in bark and surface watering during dry weather. The main symptoms are chlorosis, cessation of growth, profuse flowering and canker on stem.

Control

Remove affected portion by pruning the healthy wood and apply copper fungicide to cut ends.

Other stem diseases are branch canker (Macrophoma theicola), wood rot (Hypoxylon serpens) and dieback (Leptothyrium theae).

Leaf disease

Blister blight (Exobasidium vexans)
The fungus affects only tender leaves and stems (pluckable shoots). Translucent spots occur in three to ten days and well developed lesions are seen in two weeks. Lesions are sunken on the upper surface and convex at lower surface. Affected leaves are distorted and irregularly rolled. Stem infection leads to goose-neck shape, dieback and snapping at the point of infection.

Control

Copper oxychloride 350 g + plantomycin 70 g per ha at 3 to 4 days interval can control the disease.

CROP HUSBANDRY-COFFEE CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-05T05:07:00.000-08:00

COFFEE (Coffea spp.)

The soil and climatic requirements for Arabica and Robusta varieties are as follows:

Arabica
Elevation 1000-1500 m above MSL
Annual rainfall 1600-2500 mm
Blossom rain March-April (2.5-4.0 cm)
Backing rain April-May (5-7.5 cm)
Shade Medium to light
Temperature 15-25ºC
RH 70-80%

Robusta
Elevation 500-1000 m above MSL
Annual rainfall 1000-2000 mm
Blossom rain Feb-March (2.0-4.0 cm)
Backing rain April-May (5-7.5 cm)
Shade Uniform thin
Temperature 20-30ºC
RH 80-90%

In both cases, soil should be deep, friable, and rich in organic matter with a pH of 6.0-6.5.

Preparation of land
If it is a jungle, only selective felling of trees is done maintaining the trees, which are desirable at appropriate spacing. The under growth may be cleared to enable line marking with a base line and opening of pits. The entire plot may be conveniently divided into blocks with roads and footpaths.

In April, pits of 45 x 45 x 45 cm may be opened at appropriate spacing for different coffee cultivars as described below.

Tall arabica like S 795, S 288: 2.1 m x 2.1 m
Semi-dwarfs like Cauvery: 1.8 m x 1.8 m
Dwarfs like S 7 (San Ramon): 1.5 m x 1.5 m
Hybrids like Congensis x Robusta (CxR): 2.5 m x 2.5 m
Robusta selections like S 274, BR series: 3.0 m x 3.0 m

The pits after digging will be kept open for weathering for a couple of months until monsoon. In June, the pits are covered with topsoil and staked. In poor soils, 250 g of FYM or compost per pit may be added before filling.

Planting materials
Old arabica varieties like Kents and Coorgs are more susceptible to the leaf rust disease (Hemileia vastatrix). Arabica selections of tall, medium and dwarf habit are grown on large scale because of their proven performance in yield and comparatively better resistance to leaf rust disease. In dwarfs, San Ramon (S 7, 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3) and in medium size bushes, Cauvery (Catimor) are the popular varieties. Some of the arabica slections like Sln 5, 6 and 7 are location specific while S.795 (tall) is adapted to all areas. All the arabica selections either have vertical resistance to commonly occurring races of H. vastatrix or both horizontal and vertical resistance as in Sln.5 and 9. Robustas are not infested either with leaf rust disease or the white stem borer pest, which are more on record in arabica. However, mealy bug incidence will be more in robusta.

Propagation
In coffee, generally the propagation is done through seeds and of late in robusta, the clonal propagation was also established to be successful. To a limited extent, grafted plants are also being planted.

From the selected and certified seed blocks, healthy and fully matured fruits of normal appearance with three quarters of ripening are harvested selectively from the marked plants during November-December in the case of arabicas and in January-February in robustas. Discarding the floats, the sound fruits are pulped and sieved to remove the defective beans. The beans are then mixed with wood ash @ 0.75 kg per kg of seeds and dried under shade stirring from time to time to facilitate uniform drying. To protect the seeds against any microbial infection, the seeds are treated with either carbendazim @ 1 g or with vitavax @ 0.66 g per kg of seed coffee.

Sowing

Germination bed (primary): Seeds are sown in raised seed beds (15 cm above the ground level) provided with proper drainage prepared out of soil, compost and sand at 6:2:1 proportion. A bed of 4 x 3 m will be sufficient for 1.5 kg of seeds, if sown 1.0 to 1.5 cm apart in rows, with the flat side of the seed towards the soil. A thin layer of soil is spread after sowing and covered with dry straw to a thickness of about 5 cm to ensure uniform temperature and to regulate moisture retention. Sowing is to be taken up in December-January for arabica and in February-March for Robusta. Watering of the seed beds is to be done twice a day in the initial week and thereafter regulated. The seeds sprout in about 40 days when the straw mulch is removed. The primary beds are provided with pandal covered with coir mats or dry leaves.

Polybag (basket) nursery: Seedlings from germination beds are transplanted to polythene bags in Feb-March when they are at the 'button' stage. Polythene bags of 23 cm x 15 cm and 150 gauge thickness with adequate number of holes of 3 mm in the bottom half of the bag are preferred. The bags are filled with prepared mixture of 6 parts of sieved jungle soil, 2 parts of well rotten sieved cattle manure and 1 part of fine sand. The prepared mixture is thoroughly mixed and slightly moistened with water to facilitate packing. The soil is filled into the nursery baskets and pressed firm. Nursery baskets are arranged conveniently in rows of 10 within a rectangular frame with bamboo reapers. These frames are held in positions with bamboo or wooden props driven into the ground at suitable distance.

Coffee seedlings at the button stage are transplanted into nursery baskets. The seedlings are gently lifted from the germination beds with minimum injury to roots. Prior to transplanting, the nursery basket is watered and a vertical hole of 5 cm deep is made in the soil at the centre of the basket. At the time of transplanting it is preferable to slightly nip off the taproot of the seedling. The taproot and the feeder roots should be so disposed as to enable the plant to strike roots and make firm growth as quickly as possible. The shoot portion of the transplanted seedling should be at the same height above soil level as it was in the germination bed. Transplanting is done preferably in the early morning hours or late in the afternoon. Seedlings uprooted from the primary bed should not be stored for a long time but transplanted immediately.

Regular watering and aftercare of the seedlings should follow. Excess moisture and watering in the afternoon should be avoided as it may induce damping off.

Secondary nursery beds

In some areas, seedlings from the germination beds are transplanted to secondary nursery beds of the same soil composition as that of germination beds. Transplanting is done at button stage. Seedlings are planted 30 cm apart. If the taproot is bent or excessively grown, it is nipped off while transplanting. The beds are mulched and watered at regular intervals. Watering should be done during the early morning hours.

Aftercare of seedlings
Seedlings are to be manured once in two months with urea dissolved in water or supernatant solution of fermented cowdung slurry. For an area of 1 m2, 20 g urea dissolved in 4.5 litres water is sufficient. Adequate protection is given against nursery diseases and pests. Overhead shade in the nursery has to be thinned and finally removed after the onset of monsoon (this is not applicable to northeastern areas). The seedlings grow vigorously if watered judiciously and protected against afternoon sun.

Planting in field
Disease free and vigorous seedlings are selected for planting. Seedlings with stunted and twisted roots are discarded. Rooted plants (aged 16-18 months) with and without ball are planted during June and bag plants are generally planted during Sept- Oct. A hole is made at the centre of the pit after leveling the soil. The seedling is placed in the hole with its taproot and lateral roots spread out in proper position. The hole is then filled. The soil around the seedling is packed 3 cm high above the ground to prevent stagnation of water around the collar. The seedlings are provided with cross stakes to prevent wind damage and mulched properly.

Ball and bag seedlings are planted towards the end of the heavy monsoon rains and commencement of northeast rains, i.e., in September. First the bottom portion of the bag is cut and the tip of the root is nipped. The seedling is gently removed from the bag with its soil and root system intact and planted in the hole. The hole is covered with soil and the plant is firmly fixed similar to ball plants. It is wise to maintain both types of nurseries and have planting seasons, June and September.

Planting shade trees

Dadap is commonly used as a lower canopy shade. Stakes of 2 m length are planted for every two plants of coffee. Silver oak and dadap are planted during June when the southwest monsoon commences. During the dry seasons, stems of young dadap are either painted with dilute lime solution or wrapped in agave leaves to protect them from sun scorch.

Clonal propagation
In the case of robusta, which is highly cross pollinated clonal propagation is more adaptable. In the case of arabica, the stabilization of desirable characters in the selected plants could be easily maintained by adopting clonal or vegetative propagation method. The vertical (orthotropic) shoots are marked after harvest is over in any selected plant. Single node green wood (semi-hardwood) cutting of 10 cm length and 3 to 6 months old are planted in polythene bags with the medium of jungle soil, sand and cattle manure in the proportion of 6:3:1. The bags with cuttings are arranged in a propagation chamber made of a trench of size 2 x 1 x 0.5 m covered over with a thick polythene sheet (500 gauge) spread over a framework of bamboos.

A trench could accommodate about 108 filled up bags of size 22 x 15 cm. Preplanting treatment of the base of cutting with IBA (indole butyric acid) at 5000 ppm enhances early rooting. Under South Indian conditions, cuttings collected during June-July recorded the highest per cent of rooting. Cuttings will root in 3-4 months after planting. Rooted cuttings should be hardened by keeping them under shade for about two months and then can be transplanted into the field.

Aftercultivation
Grass and other weeds should be eradicated in the first year itself by digging or using appropriate weedicide depending on the nature of the weeds. The soil around the seedlings should be mulched properly and shade has to be provided to individual seedlings to protect against direct sun.

Training and pruning
The plant is trained either on single stem or multiple stem system. Under South Indian conditions periodical handling and pruning are essential. The type and frequency of pruning have to be decided based on a number of factors like the type of vegetative growth, incidence of pests / diseases, pattern of blossom showers etc. Centering and desuckering are to be carried out for about 5 or 6 years after planting. Removal of the dead and whippy wood is essential during the early years. Mature plants may require medium to severe pruning once in four years.

Usually coffee, both arabica and robusta, is trained on single stem. When the plants reach a desired height of 75 cm for arabica and 105-120 cm for robusta, they are topped i.e., growing apex of the stem is severed. Low topping (60-70 cm) is advocated in areas of severe wind and exposure. Under certain circumstances, multiple stem system is also adopted as in the case of replanted fields or when under-planting is taken up keeping the old plants under multiple stem system.

Irrigation
Wherever water is available, overhead irrigation by sprinkler system is adopted to a greater advantage during November-January to keep the soil moisture level and in February-April for ensuring blossom as well as backing, if necessary.

Drought management in coffee
Plants affected by drought limit vegetative growth, show floral abnormalities and poor fruit set resulting in reduced yield. Therefore, drought tolerance is an important aspect of coffee productivity. Arabica coffee is more tolerant to drought than robusta. For inducing tolerance in robusta the following nutrient solution can be sprayed @ 1 litre per plant.

Nutrient in 200 litres of water
Urea 1 kg
Super phosphate 1 kg
Muriate of potash 750 g
Zinc sulphate 1 kg

Spraying schedule

1st spray: 45 days after the last rainfall (usually the 2nd fortnight of January)
2nd spray: 30-45 days after the first spray

Foliar application of anti-transpirants like Ralli Dhan 110 @ 200 ml in 200 litres of water (0.1%) is also useful for drought management in coffee.

Fruit drop
During the developmental stage of berry, 10 to 50 per cent premature fruit drop occurs due to insufficient carbohydrate, auxin-carbohydrate imbalance, nutritional disorders and waterlogging. Many growth regulators have been tried to increase the fruit set and for controlling the pre-mature fruit drop. Following growth regulators could increase the yield when they are given as foliar application 10-15 days after blossom (first spray) and during last week of May before the onset of southwest monsoon (second spray).
Growth regulator In 200 ml of water Dose/ha (for 1.5 l)
Planofix 50 ml, 375 ml
Hormonol 50 ml, 375 ml
Agrona 50 ml, 375 ml
Miraculan 50 ml, 375 ml
Atonik 50 ml, 375 ml
Cytozyme crop 60 ml, 450 ml
Ascorbic acid 20 g, 150 g

Fruit ripening
Hastening of fruit ripening in coffee could be achieved by spraying ethephon (Ethrel) on mature berries when 10 % natural ripening is observed. By this, ripening can be hastened by 2-4 weeks and in two rounds about 96% ripe fruits could be harvested. The following concentrations are standardized for arabica and robusta plants.

Arabica: 100 to 120 ml per 200 litres of water per 400 plants
Robusta: 40 to 54 ml per 200 litres of water per 267 plants

Lower concentrations are to be used in lower elevations and thin shaded places, whereas higher concentrations are to be used in higher elevation and thick shaded plantations.

Dieback
Dieback refers to death of younger tertiary branches starting from apex progressing downwards as well as dieback from below the tip of branches and proceeding forward and backward from the point of defoliation. The occurrence of dieback is mainly due to adverse climatic and edaphic factors such as higher temperature, higher light intensity and low moisture status of soil.

Control
1. Removal of dead and whippy wood
2. Providing judicious shade by both temporary and permanent shade trees as 70% of daylight is found to be optimum
3. Conservation of soil moisture with thick mulch
4. Foliar application of nutrients
5. Correcting the soil acidity by application of lime

Shade and shade management
Dadap (Erythrina lithosperma) is generally used as a lower canopy in India. It is always planted along with coffee in new clearings. When stakes are planted in June they grow quickly since sufficient moisture will be there in the soil. In areas where the establishment of dadap is difficult due to poor rooting, application of rooting hormones and manuring have been found useful.

Diseases

Leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix)
This is an important disease causing economic loss particularly in arabica coffee. On the lower surface of the infected leaves, small pale yellowish spots appear early after the first rains in the season. These spots soon increase in size and number, and many such spots coalesce at severity causing premature defoliation. Severe defoliation leads to debilitation of the bushes and results in poor cropping in the succeeding seasons.

Control

Spray susceptible coffee with 0.5% Bordeaux mixture or 0.03% ai Plantvax 20 EC 3-4 times a year: Bordeaux mixture 0.5% in February-March as pre- or post-blossom spray, plantvax 20 EC 0.03% ai in May-June as pre-monsoon spray, plantvax 20 EC 0.03% ai or Bordeaux mixture 0.5% in July-August in mid-monsoon spray (if incidence of leaf rust is severe), and plantvax 20 EC 0.03% ai or Bordeaux mixture 0.5% in September-October as post-monsoon spray.

Black rot (Koleroga noxia)
A disease more in occurrence in endemic areas with heavy rainfall, saturated atmosphere with 95-100% RH, thick overhead shade, low over-hanging branches, sheltered from sunlight and wind in valleys or continuous mist during monsoon. The affected bushes have blackening and rotting of leaves, twigs and developing berries. There will be defoliation and berry drop in the affected branches. The entire block affected looks totally debilitated with heavy damage to crop.

Control

Centering and handling of the bushes prior to the onset of monsoon and protecting endemic patches with spraying Bordeaux mixture 1%. If incidence is observed during the monsoon, remove the affected twigs and burn them. Spray with Bordeaux mixture 1% during break in the monsoon.

Pests

Coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei)
Coffee berry borer is the most serious pest of coffee world over. The female beetle bores into the berries through the navel region and makes tunnels in the hard bean and lays about 15 eggs. The larvae feed on the beans, making small tunnels.
A typical pinhole at the tip of the berries indicates the presence of the pest, and it damages young as well as ripe berries. In case of severe infestation, 30 to 80% berries may be affected resulting in heavy crop loss. The coffee berry borer can be controlled by the following methods.

a. Cultural
Timely and complete harvest, collection of gleanings, burying the infested berries and maintaining optimum shade and good drainage can control the pest.

b. Chemical
Spraying endosulfan 35 EC 340 ml in 200 litres of water along with 200 ml of wetting agent 120-150 days after flowering (Aug-Sept, for arabica and Sept-Oct. for robusta) can control the pest.

White stem borer (Xylotrechus quadripes)
The adults have two flight periods as they emerge from the pupae during April-May and in September to December/January. As the beetles are active and females lay eggs in the crevices on the main stem of coffee, major efforts to control initial laying of eggs itself is aimed at by swabbing the main stem and the thick primaries with carbaryl 50 WP @ 4 kg in 200 litres of water once or twice (depending upon the severity of the incidence) in April-May or October to December. Apart from this, it is necessary to build up good shade and regularly trace, uproot stump and burn the infested plants. Storing of cut stems is not advisable, as it will advance the flight period.

Shot hole borer (Xylosandrus compactus)
This is a major pest in robusta coffee affecting the secondary and tertiary branches causing considerable damage. Injury to the coffee plants is primarily by the extensive tunneling within the branches, which limits the flow of sap. The affected branches dry up. The presence of withering and dead branches with shot holes is the symptom of attack.

Control

1. Prune the affected twigs 5-8 cm beyond the shot hole and burn. This operation should commence from September onwards, as
soon as the first symptom of attack like dropping of leaves is noticed, and continued as a routine measure at regular intervals.
2. The pest prefers to breed in the suckers during dry period. So remove and destroy all the unwanted / infested suckers during summer.

Mealy bugs (Planococcus sp.)
Mealy bugs damage coffee plants by sucking the sap from the tender branches, nodes, leaves, spikes, berries and roots leading to the debilitation of the plant. In case of root infestation, plants (especially young) become weak, leading to death.

Control

The mealy bug can be controlled by spraying any of the following three insecticides viz. quinalphos, fenthion or fenitrothion. In addition to the above method, the biological control agents like Cryptolaemus montrouzieri (ladybird beetle) and the parasitoid Leptomastix dactylopii have been found effective. Indirect control of the disease can be made by controlling the ants, which spread the infestation.

Green scale (Coccus viridis)
The green scale is a serious sucking pest of coffee particularly arabica.

Control
The chemical control measures include spraying the affected patches with any one of the following insecticides viz. cythion 50 EC @ 200 ml, quinalphos 25 EC @ 120 ml, fenitrothion 50 EC @ 100 ml, fenthion 1000 @ 80 ml, methyl parathion 50 EC @ 120 ml or dimethoate 30 EC @ 170 ml.

CROP HUSBANDRY- COCOA CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-03T06:26:00.000-08:00

COCOA (Theobroma cacao)

The cocoa tree flourishes in the dense shade of warm rain forests in its natural habitat and hence can be cultivated in all similar climatic conditions. The tree cannot withstand high winds, drought or sudden fall in temperature. The crop requires well-distributed rainfall. The minimum requirement of rainfall is about 100-150 cm per annum. Situations where the temperature falls below 10°C or rises above 38°C are unfavourable although minor deviations from the above limit can be adjusted by shade and irrigation. High wind velocity causes considerable mechanical damage to trees.

Cocoa is grown at altitude up to 900 m above MSL though it is possible to grow the crop even in much higher elevations under sheltered conditions.

The best soil for cocoa is forest soil rich in humus. The soil should allow easy penetration of roots and capable of retaining moisture during summer. Clay loams, loams and sandy loams are suitable. Shallow soils should be avoided.

Varieties
Though three varietal types viz., Criollo, Forastero and Trinitario are recognized, only Forastero types are known to perform well under Indian conditions. Breeding work initiated at the Kerala Agricultural University since 1979 has resulted in the release of seven improved clones of Forastero type. These are CCRP 1, CCRP 2, CCRP 3, CCRP 4, CCRP 5, CCRP 6 and CCRP 7. These improved clones are suitable for cultivation in different cocoa growing tracts of the country and also in the warm tropical areas especially under the shade of coconut. All these clones are tolerant to vascular streak dieback and have yield potential in the range from 55 to 180 pods per tree per year and mean yield from 38 to 78 pods per tree per year. During 2002, three hybrids viz., CCRP 8, CCRP 9 and CCRP 10 were released. These have mean yields of 90, 105 and 79 pods per tree per year. These are also tolerant to vascular streak dieback disease.

Cocoa is highly cross pollinated and growing of different varieties adjacent to each other must be encouraged so as to achieve maximum fruit set and yield realization.

Selection of site
Cocoa is usually planted under coconut and arecanut plantations in India. Shade levels under coconut canopy are highly variable depending mainly on the spacing of coconut, extent of canopy development and age of palms. It is estimated that light infiltration through coconut canopy ranges from about 30 to 80 per cent depending upon these factors. Based on this, the general recommendation is as follows:

1. If a choice is possible, a coconut plantation that will let in more light through the canopy may be chosen for raising cocoa.
2. If the light infiltration is over 50 per cent, it may be beneficial to provide additional shade using temporary shade plants like banana.

Preparation of land
The seedlings / budded clones are usually planted in the interspaces of coconut / arecanut. Give a spacing of 3 to 4.5 m. The crop is best grown with 50 per cent light intensity in the early stages. In the early life of the plants, planting of quick growing plants like banana and tapioca can provide temporary shade.

Planting materials
Cocoa can be propagated by seed and vegetative means.

Seed propagation
It is desirable to collect seeds from biclonal or polyclonal seed gardens involving superior self-incompatible parents to ensure genetic superiority of planting materials. Polyclonal and biclonal seed gardens have been established at CCRP farm of the Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara and Kidu farm of CPCRI and seeds and seedlings are being supplied to growers. If seeds cannot be procured from such seed gardens, mother plants for collection of seeds may be selected based on the following criteria:

(1) Trees of Forastero type having medium or large pods of not less than 350 g weight or 400 cc volume, green in colour when immature, having smooth or shallow furrows on the surface without prominent constriction at the neck should be selected. Yield of pods should be not less than 100 per year.
(2) Husk thickness of pods to be not more than 1 cm.
(3) Pod value (number of pods to give 1 kg wet beans) to be not more than 12.
(4) Number of beans per pod to be not less than 35.
(5) Bean dry weight to be not less than 1 g.

Seeds lose viability within a week of harvest of pods. Seeds are to be sown immediately after extraction from the pods. Viability of the beans can be extended for some more days if freshly extracted seeds are stored in moist charcoal and packed in polybags. Other alternative is extracting beans, removing the testa and packing in polythene bags.

Time of sowing
Though the seeds will germinate at any time of the year, seeds may preferably be sown by December-January, so that 4-6 month old seedlings become available for planting by May-June.

Method of sowing
Seeds are to be sown with hilum-end down or to be sown flat. Sowing is to be as shallow as to just cover the seeds with soil. Removal of pulp may enhance the speed of germination, but the extent of additional advantage is only marginal. Seeds start germination in about a week and germination may continue for another one week. Percentage of germination may be around 90.

Cocoa nursery is to be located in a heavily shaded area, which allows only 25-50 per cent sunlight. Regular watering is necessary to keep the soil moist.

Seedlings are transplanted after 4-6 months. Only vigorous seedlings are to be used and based on height and stem girth, 25% poor seedlings may be rejected. When seedlings are grown under heavy shade, hardening for 10 days by exposing to higher illumination may be necessary before transplanting.

Vegetative propagation
In view of the high variability exhibited by seedling progenies, vegetative propagation is preferred for large scale planting. Though vegetative propagation of cocoa by budding, rooting of cuttings and grafting are feasible, the widely accepted method in India is budding.

Scions for budding are to be collected from high yielding, disease resistant elite plants. Shoots having brown bark and just hardened leaves are selected as bud wood. Scions are preferably procured by cutting off lamina of all the leaves of the selected scion shoot to a distance of about 30 cm from the tip. After 10 days when the petioles have fallen off, these scion shoots are cut and used for budding immediately. Bud wood can be stored by dipping in benzyl chloride followed by washing in water and then sealing the cut ends using molten wax. Bud wood is then wrapped in moist cotton wool and in turn in wet tissue paper or blotting paper and packed in boxes with wet packing material. The packet is then covered using polythene sheets. Storage life of the bud wood can be extended up to 10 days by this method. As far as possible, bud wood is to be collected from chupons as those produced from fans may develop into bushy plants with spreading habit. Rootstock, six to twelve months old may be selected in such a way that scion and rootstock are of the same thickness. Different successful methods include T, inverted T, patch, and modified Forkert methods. Patch budding is adopted in the Kerala Agricultural University.

Patch budding method consists of removing a patch of about 2.5 cm length and 0.5 cm width from the rootstocks, preparing a bud patch of 2.5 cm length and 0.5 cm width from the bud wood and inserting it into the rootstock and tying firmly with polythene tape. After three weeks, if there is bud-take, polythene tape is removed; a vertical cut is made half way through the stem above the bud and is snapped back. The snapped root stock portion is cut back after the bud has grown to a shoot and at least two leaves have hardened. It is then allowed to grow for a further period of three to six months after which they are transplanted. Under normal conditions, success can be around 70-90 per cent.

Selection of planting materials
When seedlings are used for planting, select only vigorous and healthy seedlings produced from polyclonal seed garden or selected mother plants as described earlier.
When budded plants are used, select two or more clones for planting as the use of a single clone can lead to poor production due to the existence of self-incompatibility in cocoa.

Time and method of planting
Raising cocoa as a pure crop is not recommended especially in Kerala due to high pressure on land. Cocoa is planted as an intercrop in coconut and arecanut gardens. In coconut, depending upon the spacing adopted, one or two rows of cocoa can be planted in between two rows of coconut i.e., two rows where the spacing is more than 8 m and one row otherwise, the plant distance for cocoa being 2.7 to 3 m. When two-row system is adopted, the seedlings may be planted in zigzag or triangular manner.

In arecanut where the normal spacing is 2.7 m, cocoa is planted at the centre of four areca palms along alternate rows of interspaces only. Pits of 50 x 50 x 50 cm are dug, allowed to weather for one month and refilled with topsoil and 15-20 kg of compost or farm yard manure to ground level. The planting hole should be sufficient to hold the soil ball of the polybag. Tear off the polybags carefully, place the soil ball with the seedlings in the planting hole with minimum disturbance and press the soil around firmly. Planting should coincide with the onset of monsoon, but in places where irrigation is resorted to, flexibility in the time of planting is possible.

Shaping of clonal plants derived from fan shoots
Budded plants from fan shoots have diffuse branching system and bushy growth habit. This type of growth causes difficulties in carrying out cultural operations and harvesting. If a better shape of the plant is desired, appropriate formation pruning may be necessary. This involves identification of a chupon arising from a fan shoot, allowing it to grow and removing the original, lower fan-like shoots in stages. This, however, has to be done slowly as an early drastic pruning will inhibit growth.

Manuring
Apply N:P2O5:K2O in two equal split doses in April-May and September-October, @ 100:40: 140 g / tree / year. N:P2O5:K2O may be applied @ 200:80:280 g / plant / year, in trees yielding more than 50 fruits per year. Dolomite @ 100 g / plant / year may be applied to plants from the third year onwards.

Under irrigated conditions, the yearly dose may be split into four and applied during April-May, September-October, December and February-March.

Apply 1/3 of adult dose during the first year of planting, 2/3 during second year and full dose from the third year onwards.

Apply fertilizers in circular basins with a radius of 25 cm during the first year. Gradually increase the radius of the basin to 120 cm by the third year. Apply fertilizers in the entire area of 1.5 m radius around the tree followed by forking in.

Plants showing zinc deficiency symptoms (narrowing of leaves, sickle leaf formation, green vein banding, chlorosis in the interveinal areas) should be sprayed with 0.5 to 1.5% ZnSO4 three times a year.

After cultivation
During the first three or four years after planting, it is essential to keep the field free from weeds. Maintenance and regulation of shade should be carried out promptly. During the establishment phase of the crop particularly in summer, provide mulching with materials like chopped banana sheath, coconut husk, cocoa husk etc. to conserve moisture in conditions of direct insolation. A mature cocoa plantation should form a proper canopy, which will be dense enough to prevent weed growth. Operations such as pruning and regulation of shade should be attended to in time.

Pruning and training
Cocoa grows in a series of storeys, the chupon or vertical growth of the seedling terminating at the jorquette from where four to five fan branches develop. Further vertical growth is continued through a side chupon that arises from a point just below the jorquette which again jorquettes after growing to some height. Left for it, the plant will grow to a height of 8-10 m repeating this process of jorquetting and chupon formation 3-5 times. When cocoa is grown as an intercrop in coconut and arecanut plantation, it is desirable to restrict the growth to one tier formed at a convenient height preferably above the head level of the workers. When jorquetting takes place at lower levels this can be raised by nipping off all the fan branches and allowing one chupon to develop and grow further to jorquette at the desired height. After this is achieved, further vertical growth is arrested through periodical removal of chupons.

The intensity of pruning is to be decided by the nature of growth of individual trees, shade intensity, growth of the companion crops etc. In the early stages, pruning is done to give a particular shape to the tree. After the establishment of the trees in the garden, prune them to the extent of retaining only the required number of leaves (20-30 leaves per developing pod). Removal of secondary branches from the centre should be restricted only to those trees growing in excess shade.

Irrigation
Cocoa grows well as a rainfed crop under conditions of well-distributed rainfall and irrigation is not necessary. If sufficient moisture is not present in the soil due to prolonged drought or failure of rains, irrigation is to be given once in five days. Irrigation, however, helps in better growth of plants and precocity in bearing.

Top working
This technique is useful to rejuvenate old and unproductive cocoa plants and also to convert genetically poor yielders to high yielders. This consists of snapping back the desired trees below the jorquette after cutting half way. The snapped canopy continues to have contact with the trunk. A number of chupons would arise below the point of snapping and this is triggered by the breakage of apical dominance and continued connection with the snapped canopy. Patch budding as described earlier may be done on three to four vigorous and healthy shoots using scions from high yielding, disease resistant clones and the remaining chupons are removed. The polythene tape is removed three weeks after budding and the stock portion above the bud union is snapped back. The snapped portion is removed after two hardened leaves develop from the bud. When sufficient shoots are hardened, canopy of the mother tree can be completely removed. Because of the presence of an established root system and the trunk with reserve food, the top worked trees grow much faster and give prolific yield one year after the operation. Though top working can be done in all seasons, it is preferable to do it in rain-free period in irrigated gardens. For rainfed situations, it may preferably be done after the receipt of pre-monsoon showers.

Top worked trees start yielding heavily from the second year onwards. About 50 per cent improved yield is obtained in the second year and about 100 per cent improved yield in the third year. Loss of crop for one year during the operation is compensated by bumper crop in the coming years. The main stem will continue to belong to the older plant and fruits borne on this area belong to the poor yielder. Better yields are however obtained from the fan branches of the high yielding clone used for top working.

Plant protection

Pests

Red borer (Zeuzera coffeae)
Larvae burrow into the main stem of young plants and fan shoots of older trees, causing drying up.

Control

Prune off and burn affected fan shoots. Spray carbaryl 0.1% on the main stems of young plants as a prophylactic measure.

Striped squirrel (Funambulus sp.)
The squirrels gnaw the bronzing pods and extract the beans along with mucilaginous pulp.

Control

Harvest the crop just when bronzing is visible in the pod furrows. Mechanical protection of the pods can be ensured by covering them with punched polybags (150 gauge) smeared with bitumen-kerosene mixture.

Rats (Rattus rattus)
Rats are serious pests in densely planted coconut gardens with cocoa as an intercrop. They inhabit the coconut palm crowns and descend during night and cause damage to pods. Nature of damage is similar to that caused by squirrels.

Control

Baiting with anticoagulant rodenticides in the garden is recommended. Rain-proof preparations are to be used. Tie fumarin bars (rain-proof) on the base of an inner frond of coconut. Set up bamboo traps with bow attachment on the crown of palms.

Myllocerus weevils (Myllocerus viridanus)
Adults skeletonise the foliage and this is serious in young plants during July-September. Spray undersurfaces of the foliage with fenitrothion 0.05%, quinalphos 0.025% or fenthion 0.05%.

Mealy bugs (Planococcus citri and Rastrococcus sp.)
The bugs occur in cherelles, developing pods and shoots and de-sap the tissues. This can be controlled by spot application of quinalphos 0.025% or phosalone 0.1%.

Aphids (Toxoptera aurantii)
Colonies of pink aphids occur ventrally on the leaves of chupon shoot. Tender shoots are also damaged.

Control

Nip off the flaccid leaves along with the shoots and destroy the colonies.

Cockchafer beetle (Popillia sp. and Leucopholis sp.)
Grubs feed on the roots of freshly planted seedlings causing wilting. Apply carbaryl 10% DP at 10 g per pit around freshly planted seedlings.
The pods are damaged by Helopeltis sp. The pest can be controlled by spraying endosulfan 0.05%.

Diseases

Seedling blight (Phytophthora palmivora)
The symptoms develop on the leaves and stem of the seedlings or budded plants. On leaves, small water-soaked lesions appear which later coalesce resulting in the blightening of leaves. On stem, water-soaked linear lesions develop initially and later turn to black colour. Stem infection develops at any point on the stem causing the death of seedlings / budded plants.

Control

Remove and destroy severely affected seedlings. Improve drainage and adjust shade. Spray with 1% Bordeaux mixture or 0.3% copper oxychloride or 0.3% potassium phosphonate just before the onset of monsoon and thereafter at frequent intervals.

Phytophthora pod rot / black pod (Phytophthora palmivora, P. citrophthora, P. capsici)
Fruits at all stages of maturity may be attacked by P. palmivora. The first visible symptom is the appearance of a circular brown spot, which enlarges concentrically, and evenly to involve the whole pod surface. Ultimately the colour of the affected pod becomes dark brown or black. In immature pods, the discolouration spreads internally with rotting of the beans. The beans in mature pods may remain partly or wholly unaffected.

Control

Periodically remove and destroy all dried up and infected pods. Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture with adhesive (rosin washing soda preparation) with the onset of monsoon and also at frequent intervals. Provide proper drainage and regulate shade to increase aeration.

Lasiodiplodia pod rot / charcoal pod rot (Lasiodiplodia theobromae)
The disease occurs more frequently during dry season. Pods of all stages are affected. The symptoms appear as pale yellow spots from the stalk-end or tip of the pod. Later, the lesions enlarge and cover the entire pod having chocolate brown colour. In due course, the whole pod develops a black sooty appearance due to formation of spores of the fungus.

Control

Since the disease is more common on pods of plants under stress, better management practices will reduce the incidence of the disease. Remove all affected pods and spray 1% Bordeaux mixture.

Colletotrichum pod rot (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides)
The disease causes rotting of immature pods. Infection starts from the stalk-end of the pod and spreads towards tip as dark brown discolouration with a diffused yellow halo. Internal tissues of the pod also show discolouration. The whole pod turns to black and remains on the tree in a mummified form. Sometimes, infection may start from parts other than the stalk region as dark brown sunken lesion.

Control

Remove all infected pods and spray with 1% Bordeaux mixture or 0.3% copper oxychloride or mancozeb.

Phytophthora canker (Phytophthora palmivora)
The earliest symptom is the appearance of greyish brown water-soaked lesion with dark brown to black margin anywhere on the stem. A reddish brown liquid oozes out from the lesions, which later dry up to form a rusty deposit. The internal tissues beneath the outer greyish brown lesion appear as reddish brown. The wood shows greyish brown discolouration with black streaks. Wilting occurs, when canker girdles the affected stem / branches.

Control

If the disease is detected early, remove and destroy the affected tissues completely and apply Bordeaux paste. Wilted branches should be cut and removed. Since canker mainly develops from pod rot caused by Phytophthora, proper control measures of Phytophthora pod rot will help in reducing incidence of the disease.

Pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor)
The disease appears as a pinkish powdery coating on the stem of affected plants. The pink colour represents profuse conidial production by the fungus. The fungal growth may rapidly spread and girdle the stem, so that the distal parts are affected. The extent to which the leaf may wilt, turn brown and fall depends on the part of the tree, which is affected. The disease mainly affects the forking region and the damage is localized. Splitting of the bark on the affected region is also noticed. Sometimes, the fungus produces pustules (Necator stage), which are orange red in colour and are arranged in rows along the stem.

Control

Remove all the infected and dried branches. Apply Bordeaux paste at the fork region and at the cut ends of the twigs and spray with 1% Bordeaux mixture before the onset of monsoon. Repeat spraying again once or twice during the monsoon season according to the intensity of the disease.

Vascular streak dieback (VSD) (Oncobasidium theobromae)
The first indication of the disease is the characteristic chlorosis of one or two leaves on the second or third growth flush behind the tip. Tip leaves show symptoms first only in very young seedlings or in slow growing seedlings or branches. The patterns on the diseased leaves develop into small sharply defined green spots scattered over a yellow background. Diseased leaves fall within a few days after turning yellow. Leaves above and below the first diseased leaf soon begin to show yellowing with green patches and these also fall off finally resulting in dieback of the infected branches.
Leaf scars from the fall of chlorotic leaves are sometimes covered by a white, loosely adherent fruiting body of the fungus. These fruiting bodies have been found only on leaf scars and adjacent bark in the diseased region of cocoa stems. If the diseased stem is split longitudinally, the xylem is found to be discoloured by brown streaks.

Control

Cut and remove all infected twigs. Prune off all affected branches 30 cm below the last point of visible vascular streak of the stem to prevent further spread within the plant. Grow VSD tolerant cocoa types.

White thread blight (Marasmius scandens)
The white mycelial threads of the fungus spread longitudinally and irregularly along the surface of the stem of young branches and enter the leaf along the petioles. On the leaf lamina it spreads extensively and forms a much-branched system of fine threads. The affected leaves turn dark brown and such dead leaves eventually get detached from the stem, but are found suspended by the mycelial thread. Extensive death of the young branches and suspended leaves in rows are the common field symptoms.

Control

Remove and destroy the affected plant parts. Avoid heavy shade. Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture.

Harvesting

It takes about 170 days for a cocoa pod to develop from formation to maturity. During the period from 70-140 days after pollination, the size of pods and their fat and sugar content increase rapidly. Ripening takes about 25 days, during which, the pods change colour depending on the variety. Pods remain suitable for harvesting for fairly long time after they have ripened. Hence, it is possible to have harvest of sufficient number of pods at a time by either delaying the harvest of early-ripened pods or harvest of pods, which are fully ripened. Harvesting should be done at regular intervals rather than daily, once in 7-10 days. Avoid over-ripening of pods. The discards at the harvest can be left in the garden either in the open during summer or in pits at different sites in the rainy season, or they can be incorporated in the compost. Pod husks from the fermentary can also be used similarly as a good source of organic manure.

Pods are removed by cutting with a sickle-sharp knife, without damaging the cushion from which it is developed. After 2-3 days, they are split by banging them against some hard objects. Opening the pods with a knife damages the beans. During the period between harvesting and splitting, pre-fermentation activity inside the pod is hastened, which improves later fermentation. Beans from the split pods are scraped out with fingers. Portions of placenta, and broken, germinated, caked, parthenocarpic and undeveloped beans are removed. On an average, 10-12 pods give 1 kg of wet beans and 3 kg of wet beans (from 30-36 pods) give 1 kg of fermented and dried beans.

Fermentation
During fermentation, the pulp or mucilage covering the fresh beans is removed and characteristic chocolate flavour is imparted to the final produce. The process is simple but must be carried out properly in order to get beans of good quality. Heat is produced by keeping the fresh beans compactly and this heat must be conserved so that chemical changes inside the bean can be completed.
The four methods of fermentation usually employed involve the use of baskets, heaps, boxes and trays for filling up the wet beans.

Tray method

The best method suitable for small quantities of beans is the tray fermentation. Wooden trays, 10 cm deep with slatted / split cane bottoms are divided into a number of sections by means of wooden partitions that fit into appropriate grooves at required distances. The capacity of the tray can be adjusted depending upon the availability of beans by keeping the wooden plank in the appropriate grooves. A convenient tray can be 25 cm wide and 60 cm long. Wet beans are filled in the tray and levelled. About 10 kg of wet beans may be required to load one tray fully.

A single tray of beans will not ferment properly and at least four or five trays are needed for successful fermentation. The trays are stacked one over the other in such a manner that the cocoa filled portions are in a single row one above the other. The top tray is covered with plantain leaves. After 24 hours, a close fitting sack is put to cover the stack to keep the beans warm. Mixing or stirring of beans is not necessary and fermentation gets completed in 4 to 5 days, whereas 6 to 7 days are required for other methods of fermentation.

Basket method

In this method, bean lots ranging from 2-6 kg can be fermented successfully. Mini baskets may be made of bamboo matting, closely woven and should have a diameter of 20 cm and height of 15 cm for a capacity of 2 kg. For slightly larger lots, proportionately deeper baskets may be used (e.g., for 6 kg, the depth may be about 40 cm). The baskets are lined with one or two layers of torn banana leaves to facilitate drainage of sweatings. Wet beans are then filled, compacted and covered with banana leaves. The baskets are placed on a raised platform to allow the flow of drippings. After 24 hours, it is covered with gunny-sack and applied weights (bricks). The beans are to be taken out and stirred well 48 hours and 96 hours after the initial setting. Fermentation will be completed in six days and the beans can be taken for drying on the seventh day.

A number of factors influence the duration of fermentation. Weather changes and season are important through their influence on temperature and atmospheric moisture. Ripening also affects fermentation. Beans from unripe pods cannot be fermented. Beans of Criollo ferment more quickly than those of Forastero. During the early stages of fermentation, heat is produced by the action of anaerobic microorganisms. The beans are killed by the combined effect of heat and acetic acid and the cocoa aroma and flavour potential are developed.

Judging the end point of fermentation
Well-fermented beans will be plumpy and filled with a reddish brown exudate. The testa becomes loosened from the cotyledons. When cut open, the cotyledons will have a bleached appearance in the centre with a brownish ring in the periphery. When above 50% of beans in a lot show the above signs, it can be considered as properly fermented.

Drying
On completion of fermentation, beans are dried either in the sun or by artificial means. Sun drying can be done in thin layers 2-3 cm deep and stirring from time to time. Under normal sunny weather, drying can be completed in four to five days. While drying in mechanical driers, care must be taken to avoid exposure of the beans to smoke, fumes etc. The most common method of determining bean dryness is to take a sample and compress this in the palm of the hand and listen for the characteristic sound, which is associated with correctly dried cocoa. The more scientific method is to use a moisture meter.

Storage
The dried beans with moisture content of 6-8% may be packed in polythene bags or polythene lined gunny bags. Some special conditions have to be provided in storage in order to maintain the quality of the cured beans. Properly dried beans can be kept in 200-300 gauge polythene covers if only small quantities are involved or in polythene lined gunny bags in the case of larger stocks. Beans should be cleaned of flat, broken and other defective beans before storing. The store should be sufficiently ventilated and the bags should be kept on a wooden platform with air space of about 15-20 cm below the wooden planks set over the floor. The humidity should not exceed 80% so as to prevent mould development and pest incidence in the beans. Before storing cocoa, the store can be made clean and insect free by application of pesticides well in advance, but pesticides should neither be applied nor be kept with the beans inside the store. As cocoa beans can absorb and retain permanently any odour from its surroundings, other food-stuffs should not be kept with cocoa. So also, smoke or kerosene fumes should be prevented from entry.
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CROP HUSBANDRY- BETEL VINE CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-03T06:23:00.000-08:00

BETEL VINE (Piper betle)

Betel vine requires a tropical climate with high atmospheric humidity. It can be cultivated in the uplands as well as in wetlands. In Kerala, it is mainly cultivated in arecanut and coconut gardens as an intercrop. The crop grows best on well-drained fertile soils. Waterlogged, saline and alkali soils are unsuitable for its cultivation. The crop also comes up very well in lateritic soils. Proper shade and irrigation are essential for successful cultivation of this crop. An annual rainfall ranging from 200 to 450 cm is ideal. The crop tolerates a minimum temperature of 10ºC and a maximum of 40ºC. Extremely low atmospheric temperature leads to leaf fall. Hot dry winds are harmful.

Varieties
The important types are Thulasi, Venmani, Arikodi, Kalkodi, Karilanchi, Karpuram, Chelanthikarpuram, Koottakkodinandan, Perumkodi, Amaravila and Pramuttan.

Season
There are two important planting seasons. The Edavakodi is planted in May-June and the Thulakodi in August-September.

Preparation of land
Areas with good shade and irrigation facilities are preferred for this crop. The land is dug well and laid out into furrows of 10-15 m length, 75 cm width and 75 cm depth. Such furrows are opened at a distance of 1 m apart. Well rotten farmyard manure and leaves are thoroughly incorporated with the topsoil of the furrows, along with wood ash. High dose of organic manure (20-50 t/ha) is applied to maintain good soil structure, which is essential for the proper development of the root system.

Planting material and planting
Top portions of mature vines (2-3 years old) are used for planting. Healthy cuttings of about 1 m length with three nodes are used as planting material. For planting one hectare, 20000-25000 cuttings are required. Furrows are irrigated prior to planting. Cuttings are planted in holes 20 cm apart in furrows. While planting, one node shall be buried in the soil and the second node should be at the ground level. The soil around the planted cutting must be pressed firmly to encourage quick germination. It is necessary to provide shade to the planted cuttings. Coconut leaves are used as shading material. To prevent excess moisture in the soil, splashing water on the vines by hand is preferable in the early stages. In the absence of rain, light irrigation, four times daily, is given till establishment. Cuttings establish in three weeks time and the first leaf emerges in about a month.

Irrigation and drainage
Betel vine needs constantly moist soil, but there should not be excessive moisture. Hence, frequent light irritations are given. The quantity of irrigation water should be such that the standing water should not remain for more than half an hour in the bed. If waterlogging by heavy rains or excess irrigation occurs, drainage should be arranged immediately. The best time for irrigation is morning or evening.

Trailing the vines and weeding
The cuttings sprout and creep in about a month. At this time, they must be trailed on the standards. Bamboo standards are erected at intervals and linked by tying at heights of 30 cm and 150 cm using coir rope. In the initial stages trailing is done on coir tied for the purpose. Trailing is done further by tying the vines, at intervals of 15-20 cm along the standards loosely with the help of banana fibre. When vines come in contact with standards, they produce adventitious roots using which they cling to support. Trailing is done every 15-20 days depending on the growth of vines. Gardens should be kept clean by weeding and stirring as and when required.

Manuring
Dried leaves and wood ash are applied to the furrows at fortnightly intervals and cowdung slurry is sprinkled. This is repeated till four months after planting when the crop is ready for harvest. Application of different kinds of leaves (gliricidia, mango leaves etc) at monthly intervals is found advantageous for the growth of the vines.

Harvesting
In about 3-6 months time, vines grow to a height 150-180 cm. At this stage branching is noticed in the vines. Leaves are removed along with the petiole with the right thumb. Once harvesting is commenced, it is continued almost every day or week. The interval of harvesting varies from 15 days to about a month till the next lowering of vines. After each harvest, manuring has to be done.

Lowering the vines
Under normal conditions, vines grow to a height of about 3 m in one-year time. When they reach this height, their vigour to produce normal sized leaves is reduced and the crop needs rejuvenation. This is done by lowering the vines down to the ground level at least once a year. Lowering is done during the months of August-September. Before lowering, all the leaves in the basal portion of the vines to a height of 15 cm are removed. Vine is untied from bottom upwards and coiled up carefully and laid flat on ground leaving 2.5 to 5 cm length of top shoots. Soil is put over the portion kept in the soil to about 5 cm thickness. Lowering is followed by light irrigation and manuring.

Plant protection
The insect pests include the mirid bug (Disphincuts politus) which de-saps the tender leaves and shoots, scale insects and mealy bugs (Lepidosaphes and Pseudococcus), which occur on the stems. Insecticidal application is not recommended to avoid toxic hazards. In serious infestations, apply fish oil soap at 1.5% against the mirid bugs and 0.025% quinalphos against the scale insects and mealy bugs. Against scale insects, restrict insecticide application on the stem only. The leaves should be harvested only after 15 days of insecticide application. The treated leaves should be consumed / marketed after thorough washing in water. Among the diseases, the bacterial leaf spot caused by Xanthomonas betlicola is most serious in southern Kerala. The initial symptoms appear as small water-soaked regions, which enlarge and turn dark brown in the centre with yellow halo. Profuse bacterial ooze may be seen on the lower side of the lesion. In severe cases, defoliation and stem injury occur, leading to wilting of the plant. The cultivars Karilanchi, Karpuram, and Thulasi are found susceptible to the disease. Spraying of 1% Bordeaux mixture is recommended to control the disease.

CROP HUSBANDRY- ARECANUT CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-03T06:19:00.000-08:00

ARECANUT (Areca catechu)

The arecanut palms grow under a variety of climatic and soil conditions. It grows well from almost sea level up to an altitude of 1000 m in areas of abundant and well-distributed rainfall or under irrigated conditions. It is grown in a variety of soils such as laterites, red loams and alluvial.

Varieties
Mangala, Sumangala, Sreemangala and Mohitnagar.

Selection of site
Select sites with deep well drained soil without high water table. Provide adequate irrigation facilities.

Selection of mother palms
Select mother palms showing earliness and regularity in bearing, high percentage of fruit set and semi-tall to dwarf in stature.

Selection of seed nuts
Select fully tree-ripe nuts from middle bunches during midseason. Discard nuts, which are undersized, malformed and low in weight.

Nursery techniques

Sow selected seed nuts soon after harvest in nursery bed with stalk-end up and with a spacing of 5-6 cm. Cover the seed nuts with sand and irrigate daily.

Transplant 90 day old sprouts having 2-3 leaves to the secondary nursery. Prepare secondary nursery beds of 150 cm width and of convenient length. Apply cattle manure @ 5 t/ha as basal dose. Transplant sprouts at a spacing of 30 x 30 cm. Provide shade by growing banana, Coccinia indica etc or by means of artificial pandal. Plant banana in advance at a spacing of 2.7 x 3.6 m when it is grown as a shade crop. Provide irrigation during hot and dry periods and drainage during monsoon. Periodical weeding and mulching are necessary.

Selection of seedlings

Select good seedlings for transplanting in the main field when they are 12-18 months old. Selection of seedlings can be based on the selection index. Multiplying leaf number by 40 and subtracting the seedling height gives the selection index. Select seedlings with higher selection index values.

Example:

Seedling height = 90 cm, Leaf number = 5.
Selection index (5 x 40)-90 = 110
(If for instance, index values range between 50 and 150, select seedlings with higher values to the extent possible). Remove seedlings with the ball of earth attached to them for transplanting.

Note: Plant characters such as girth at the collar one year after transplanting and number of nodes two years after transplanting are highly correlated with yield. Removal of plants with poor collar girth and lesser number of nodes one and two years after planting respectively, will help to increase the yield potential of plantations.

Field planting

Plant tall, quick growing shade trees on the southern and western sides of the plantation to provide protection from sun scorching.

Plant seedlings in pits at a spacing of 2.7 m x 2.7 m with north-south alignment, the rows being deflected at an angle of 35º towards west. Dig pits of size 60 x 60 x 60 cm and fill up with rich topsoil to a level of 15 cm from the bottom. Plant seedlings at the centre of pit, cover with soil up to collar level and press around.

The planting is to be done during May-June in well-drained soils and during August-September in clayey soils. Banana may be planted between rows to provide shade in the initial stages up to 4-5 years.

Manuring
Apply green leaf and compost, each at the rate of 12 kg per palm per year from first year of planting onwards, during September-October.

Apply N:P2O5:K2O for adult palms @ 100: 40:140 g / palm / year.

Apply 1/3 dose during first year, 2/3 dose during second year and full dose from third year onwards. Under irrigated conditions, apply fertilizers in two split doses, the first during September-October and the second during February. Under rainfed conditions, apply the second dose during March-April after the receipt of summer rains. Apply manures and fertilizers during September-October in circular basins of 15-20 cm depth and with a radius of 0.75-1.0 m from the palm. Apply the second dose of fertilizers around the base of palm after weeding and mix into soil by light forking. In acidic soils, broadcast lime at the rate of 0.5 kg per palm once in two or three years and incorporate into soil by forking during March-April.

Irrigation and drainage

Irrigate the palms during hot and dry periods at regular intervals of 3-5 days depending upon the soil type.

The palms should be irrigated once in four to seven days depending on the soil type and climatic factors. In west coast, where major area of arecanut gardens are irrigated, watering the garden once in seven or eight days during November-December, once in six days during January-February and once in three to five days during March-April-May is recommended. In each irrigation, give about 175 litres of water per palm. Where there is shortage of water, follow drip irrigation. Application of organic mulch to the garden helps conservation of soil moisture.

Construct drainage channels (25-30 cm deep from the bottom of pits) between the rows and drain out water during periods of heavy rainfall to prevent waterlogging.

Cultural operations

Keep the garden free of weeds and break up surface crust by light forking or digging after cessation of monsoon during October-November. In slopes, prevent soil erosion by terracing. Sow seeds of green manure-cum-cover crops such as Mimosa invisa, Stylosanthes gracilis and Calapagonium muconoides in April-May with the onset of pre-monsoon rains. Cut and apply them to the palms in September-October.

Intercropping and mixed cropping
Crops such as elephant foot yam, pineapple, pepper, betel vine, banana, guinea grass, cocoa, ginger and cardamom can be grown in arecanut gardens. While planting cocoa, a spacing 2.7 x 5.4 m is recommended. In all cases, the intercrops should be manured adequately and separately.

Plant protection

Pests

Mites
Orange coloured mites can be controlled by spraying the bunches with dimethoate at 0.05 per cent.

Spindle bug (Carvalhoia arecae)

The feeding injury is caused on the lamina and petiole. The affected leaves show dry brown patches.

Spray crowns with carbaryl 50 WP. The spray should reach the leaf axils. Repeat spraying after 30-35 days if pest incidence continues. Placement of 2 g phorate 10G sachets on the top most two leaf axils prevents the pest attack.

Inflorescence caterpillar (Batachedra sp.)
Force open the inflorescence out of the enclosing spathe and spray malathion 50 EC (250 ml in 100 litres of water). Control slugs, which predispose inflorescence to the attack of caterpillar, by using bait of metaldehyde.

Root grub (Leucopholis burmeisteri)
Loosen soil around the base of palms to a depth of 10-15 cm and drench with chlorpyrifos 0.04% suspension twice, one in May just before the onset of southwest monsoon and again in September-October towards the close of the monsoon. Repeat application for 2 or 3 years consecutively to secure a complete eradication of the pest. Root grubs can also be controlled by soil application of phorate 10G around the palms.

Diseases
Koleroga (Mahali or fruit rot) (Phytophthora palmivora)
Spray Bordeaux mixture 1% on all bunches three times in a year, one just before the onset of southwest monsoon and the rest at 40 days intervals. If monsoon season is prolonged give a third spray. Use rosin soda adhesive to ensure tenacity of the spray deposit on treated substrate. Remove and burn all fallen and infected nuts.

Bud rot (Phytophthora palmivora)
Remove and destroy affected spindle and leaves. In early stages of infection, scoop out affected rotten tissues by making longitudinal side splits and apply Bordeaux paste on the exposed healthy tissues or drench crown with 1% Bordeaux mixture.

Basal stem rot (Anabe) (Ganoderma lucidum)
1. Isolate affected palms by digging trenches 60 cm deep and 30 cm wide around, one metre away from the base and drench with captan (0.3%), calixin (0.1%) or copper oxychloride (0.3%)
2. Remove and destroy all severely affected palms and stumps of dead palms.
3. Drench the soil with 1% Bordeaux mixture before planting healthy seedlings.
4. Discourage growing of collateral hosts of fungus such as Delonix regia and Pongamia glabra in the vicinity of gardens.
5. Apply 2 kg neem cake per palm.
6. Avoid flood irrigation and water flowing from infected palms to healthy palms.

Yellow leaf disease
Maintain the garden properly to keep affected palms in a healthy condition by adopting recommended manurial, cultural, plant protection and other management practices. Improve drainage conditions in the garden.

Disease management

1. Apply the recommended dose of fertilizers.
2. In addition to the above, apply 160 g of rock phosphate per palm in the affected garden.
3. Apply organic manure @ 12 kg each of compost and green leaves per palm per year.
4. Provide irrigation during summer months
5. Avoid water stagnation in the garden by providing drainage facilities.
6. Grow cover crops in the garden.
7. When only a few palms are affected in a garden, remove them to prevent further spread of the disease.
8. Adopt need based plant protection measures against pests and diseases.

Band disease
Improve soil conditions by loosening hard soil strata, if present, by providing good drainage. Adopt adequate control measures against spindle bug, mealy bugs, scales and mites. Where the results of the above treatments are not found satisfactory, apply powdered mixture of copper sulphate and lime in equal quantities @ 225 g/palm twice a year at the base of affected palms. Application of borax @ 25 g/palm has been found to have an ameliorative effect.

Collar rot of seedlings
Improve drainage conditions in nursery beds and gardens. Drench spindle and base of seedlings with 1% Bordeaux mixture in disease affected nursery or garden.

Dieback of inflorescence
Remove affected inflorescence immediately. Spray zineb (4 g in 1 litre of water) or mancozeb (3 g/l) twice, once just after female flowers are set and again 15-28 days later. Aureofungin sol at 50 ppm concentration is also effective in controlling the disease.

Stem bleeding
Palms in the age group of 10-15 years are more prone to this disease. Symptoms appear on the basal portion of the stem as small discoloured depression. Later, these spots coalesce and cracks develop on the stem leading to disintegration of the fibrous tissues inside. With the progress of the disease, a brown exudate oozes out from these cracks. High water table predisposes the palm to this disease.
Improvement of drainage and root feeding of 125 ml tridemorph (1.5%) is suggested as control measure against this disease.

Sun scorch
Protect palms from southwest sun by wrapping stems with areca sheath or white-wash the exposed portion. Provide reinforcement to palms showing stem fissures. Grow tall, quick growing trees on southern and western sides of garden.

Nut splitting
This can be considered as a physiological disorder than a disease. Palms in the age group of 10-25 years are more susceptible. Symptoms are premature yellowing of the nuts when they are half to three-fourth mature. Later splits develop at the tips, which extend longitudinally exposing the kernel. Sometimes kernel also show splitting and malformation. Rarely the kernel inside may exhibit splitting without visual symptoms on the husk, resulting in nut fall. Hyper nutrition or sudden flush of water after a period of drought or insufficient moisture in the soil is the probable cause (s) of the disease.

Improvement of drainage in ill drained gardens and spraying of borax @ 2 g/litre of water are found effective in reducing the disease incidence.

Post-harvest technology
A simple de-husking device has been standardized by the CPCRI, Kasaragod. The out turn with this device is 60 kg of husked nuts in the case of dry nuts and 30 kg in the case of green nuts. The cost of the device is about Rs 250.

CROP HUSBANDRY- TAMARIND CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-03T06:16:00.000-08:00

TAMARIND (Tamarindus indica)

The tree is particularly well adapted to semi-arid tropical regions, but can be grown in heavy rainfall areas too, provided the soil is well drained. It is adaptable to poor soil also.

Propagation technique
It is propagated by means of seeds, grafts and budding. Healthy seeds are sown in polybags and seedlings are transplanted at 40-60 cm height. Due to erratic bearing of seedling progeny, grafts are successfully used as propagules. Side grafting, inarching and patch budding are commonly practised. Budding is done on nine-month-old saplings for higher success.

Cultural operations
Plants of 40-60 cm height are planted during June to November at 10 x 10 m spacing in pits of 1 m3 size incorporated with 15 kg of FYM. Regular watering till the plants establish in the field is a must. Leader shoot is cut at 3 m above ground level to induce scaffold branches. Organic manures are generally used. Intercropping with vegetables, groundnut and sesame can be done till the fifth year.

Pests and diseases
Insects like Tribolium castaneum and fungi are serious problems in storage and field respectively. Spray application of endosulfan at 0.05% at the time of fruiting, when infestation starts, can control the storage beetle. Against powdery mildew damage, 0.1% dinocap is recommended.

Harvest and yield
Seedlings start to yield 8-10 years after planting whereas grafts and budded seedlings give yield after 4-5 years. Stabilized yield of 250 kg/tree is obtained from 9-10 years onwards. Harvesting is done from January to April. There is also a tendency of alternate bearing as in the case of mango.

CROP HUSBANDRY- CAMBOGE(KUDAMPULI)CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-03T06:12:00.000-08:00

CAMBOGE [KUDAMPULI] (Garcinia gummi-gutta var. gummi-gutta)

Garcinia, the camboge tree is a big sized glabrous and evergreen forest tree commonly seen in the Western Ghats of Kerala, Karnataka, and also in Sri Lanka. The tree is very much adapted to hill tops and plain lands alike. But, its performance is best in river banks and valleys. It grows well in dry or occasionally waterlogged or flooded soils. The economic part of the plant is its mature fruit, which is highly acidic. The extract obtained from the mature fruit rind, (-) hydroxy citric acid, attracts foreign markets, for its use in medicines controlling obesity.

Planting materials
Grafts prepared through soft wood grafting or side grafting and healthy seedlings raised in the nursery are used for cultivation. If seedlings are planted, 50-60% will be male; and female takes 10-12 years for bearing. Hence planting of grafts is advocated as they ensure maternal characters including early bearing tendency.

Propagation by seedlings

Selection of mother trees: Locate mother trees that give a steady annual yield with a mean fruit weight of 200-275 g, high acid and low tannin content. Collect seeds from freshly harvested and fully ripe fruits and wash in running water and spread in a thin layer under roof. By the 20th day, seeds will be ready for sowing. Sow seeds at the rate of two per bag in polybags during the month of August-September. Usually seeds start sprouting in the month of December but the sprouts become visible above the soil surface only by February. In order to avoid delayed germination, simple seed treatment methods can be employed.

Method 1: In this method, the processed seeds (after drying under shade) are given a mechanical treatment. Remove seed coats of such seeds using a sharp knife without injuring the ivory coloured cotyledon. Sow these ivory coloured cotyledons afresh in polybags at a depth of 3 cm. Germination starts in 20-25 days after sowing.

Method 2: After removing the seed coats, treat the seeds with gibberellic acid @ 250 ppm for 6 hours, and thereafter soak them in mancozeb @ 4 g/l for 2 hours. Sow the seeds in nursery bags and irrigate daily. Seeds germinate in 16-20 days.

Method 3: Second method followed by transfer of the seeds to a white polypropylene cover of size 20 cm x 25 cm along with 30-50 ml of filtered water. Tie the polybag along with the air inside tightly using a rubber band. Such seeds germinate in 10-12 days after sowing. In a polybag, about 500-750 seeds can be incubated at a time. Pick up the sprouted seeds and sow in the nursery bags kept under shade.

Keep the seedlings under shade. Irrigate them regularly on alternate days during summer months. After 3-4 months, place the seedlings under direct sunlight to trigger robust growth. At this age, apply FYM @ 50 g per bag. In six to seven months time, seedlings will be ready for planting.

Propagation by grafting
Two types of grafting methods are employed viz. soft wood grafting and approach grafting.
Soft wood grafting
Select scions only from specific elite trees regular in bearing, which produce high yield of large and quality fruits.

Collection of scion: Select straight growing, healthy, young shoots emerging from the primary branches with whorled leaf arrangement. Cut them to a length of 6-10 cm and store in polybags under humid condition. Remove leaves partly and shape the cut end to a wedge of 3-4 cm length by giving slanting cuts on two opposite sides.

Preparation of rootstock: Stock-plants having 3-4 mm stem thickness are ideal for grafting. Behead the selected plants at two nodes below the terminal bud and remove all the leaves at the graft union. Use scion and rootstock of same thickness for grafting.

Grafting: Insert the wedge of the scion into the cleft made on the rootstock and secure the graft joint firmly with a black polythene tape, 1.5-2 cm wide and 30 cm long.

Care in the nursery: Immediately after grafting, cover the plants with a transparent polypropylene cover and keep under shade. By the 30th day, grafts will establish and new leaves will start emerging. Remove the polythene cover and keep under shade. Water the grafts daily using rose-can or micro-sprinkler. Care should be taken to remove sprouts emerging from rootstock at frequent intervals. Three months after grafting the plants will be ready for planting in the main field. Just before planting in the main field, leave the grafts under open condition in 10-15 days for hardening.

Approach grafting
Here also stock plants having 3-4 mm thickness are preferred and they are brought to the place where the mother tree is located. Grafting is done as in other crops and is kept intact for 45 days by which time union occurs. Graft is detached from the mother tree in three steps. The main disadvantage is that only a limited number of grafts can be produced in this method. Forty-five days after grafting, they will be ready for transferring to the main nursery for hardening. Grafts are to be watered daily using a rose-can or micro-sprinkler. Care should be taken to remove sprouts emerging from rootstock at frequent intervals. Leaf folding pests common in the nursery can be controlled by spraying with quinalphos @ 2 ml/l at monthly intervals. One-year-old grafts can be used for field planting.

Planting
Prepare pits of size 1 x 1 m at spacing of 10 m. Refill the pits with a mixture of topsoil and compost / FYM. Proper care should be given to avoid water stagnation in pits.

The plants can be raised as a pure crop or as a mixed crop in coconut and arecanut gardens. Take pits of size 0.75 x 0.75 x 0.75 m in hard and laterite soils; 0.50 x 0.50 x 0.50 m in sandy and alluvial soils, at a spacing of 4 m x 4 m for grafts and 7 m x 7 m for seedlings. In slopes of 15% or more, for planting grafts, rows are spaced at 5 to 5.5 m and 3.5 m between trees in a row. For planting seedlings, rows are spaced at 8 to 12 m and at 6 to 8 m for trees in a row. Planting is generally done at the onset of monsoon showers. Under existing coconut plantation of 25 years and above, spacing shall be so adjusted that it should alternate with the palms in the rows. Under Kuttanad conditions, where bunds and channels alternate, planting can be done in between two palms. Fill the pits with topsoil and 5 kg of compost or well-decomposed cattle manure and 10 g of carbaryl 10% dust, to avoid white ant attack, before planting. The graft union shall remain just above the ground level. Provide support to the young plants. One month after planting, gently remove the polythene tape around the graft union.

Management of plantation
Clean the field free of bushes and thick shades. Weed once in three months and mulch the basin with black polythene or dry leaves to avoid drying.

Manuring
Apply 10 kg cattle manure or compost per seedling / graft during the first year. Gradually increase the quantity so that a well-grown tree of 15 years and above receives 50 kg of organic manure per year. Apply N:P2O5:K2O mixture at the rate of 20:18:50 g/plant during the first year. Double the dose in the second year and gradually increase it to 500:250:1000 g / plant / year at the 15th year.

Pruning
Grafts will grow fast from the second year onwards. Give strong support with casuarina poles at this stage. By fifth year, the tree will have 3 to 4 m height. At this stage, height of the plant may be maintained at 3.5 to 4 m and by seventh year at 4 to 4.5 m by pruning.

Harvesting
Seedlings start bearing generally at the age of 10-12 years. Grafts start bearing from the third year onwards and will attain full bearing at the age of 12 to 15 years. Flowering occurs in January-March and fruits mature in July. There are reports of off-season bearers, which bear two times a year, i.e., during January-July and September-February. Mature fruits, which are orange yellow in colour, drop off from the tree. Harvest mature fruits manually before they fall. Immediately after harvest, wash the fruits in running water and separate the fruit rind for processing.

Processing
Separated fruit rind is first sun dried and then either smoke-dried or oven-dried at 70-80ºC. In order to increase the storage life and to impart softness, mix the dried rind with common salt @ 150 g and coconut oil @ 50 ml per kg of dried rind.

Pests and diseases
Hard scales and beetles are found to infest the crop. Hard scales desap the leaves and tender shoots. Both the adult beetles and their grubs defoliate the crop inflicting heavy loss of yield. Control these pests by spraying dimethoate or monocrotophos @ 1 ml/l. Leaf folders are very common in the nursery against which quinalphos @ 2 ml/l may be sprayed. Incidence of hoppers is observed on grafts and large trees. This causes withering of leaves, drying up of branches and yield loss. Control them by spraying carbaryl 50 WP 2g + dichlorovos 1 ml per litre of water. Sooty mould is seen associated with hard scales. Seedling blight in the nursery stage is very common. Control it by drenching nursery bed with 1% Bordeaux mixture or using mancozeb @ 5 g/l. In grafts and large trees, sometimes, fungal thread blights have been observed to cause leaf and twig blight. Adopt proper pruning and spray 1% Bordeaux mixture or mancozeb 0.3 %.

CROP HUSBANDRY-TURMERIC CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-03T06:10:00.000-08:00

TURMERIC (Curcuma longa)

Turmeric is a tropical herb and can be grown on different types of soil under irrigated and rainfed conditions. Rich loamy soils having good drainage are ideal for the crop. It is a shade tolerant crop with shallow roots suitable for intercropping and also as a component crop in the homesteads where low to medium shade is available.

Preparation of land
Prepare the land to a fine tilth during February-March. On receipt of pre-monsoon showers in April, prepare beds of size 3 x 1.2 m with a spacing of 40 cm between beds.

Seed material
Whole or split mother rhizomes are used for planting. Select well developed, healthy and disease free rhizomes. Treat the rhizomes in any of the copper oxychloride fungicides and store in cool, dry place or in earthen pits plastered with mud and cowdung.

Varieties
The important varieties are Duggirala, Tekurpetta, Sugantham, Kodur, Armoor, Alleppey, Suvarna, Suguna, Sudarshana, Prabha, Prathibha, Kanthi, Sobha, Sona and Varna.

Season and method of planting
Plant during April with the receipt of pre-monsoon showers. Take small pits in the beds in rows with a spacing of 25 x 25 cm. Plant finger rhizomes flat with buds facing upwards and cover with soil or dry powdered cattle manure. The seed rate is about 2000-2500 kg per ha.

Manuring
Apply cattle manure or compost as basal dose at 40 t/ha at the time of land preparation or by spreading over the beds after planting. Apply N:P2O5:K2O @ 30:30:60 kg/ha. Full dose of P2O5 and half dose of K2O may be applied as basal; 2/3 dose of N may be applied at 30 days after planting; and 1/3 N and remaining K2O may be applied 60 days after planting.

Mulching
Mulch the crop immediately after planting with green leaves @ 15 t/ha. Repeat mulching after 50 days with the same quantity of green leaves.

Aftercultivation
Weed the crop thrice at 60, 120 and 150 days after planting, depending upon weed intensity. Earth up the crop after 60 days.

Intercropping
Chilly, maize and colocasia can be grown as intercrops.

Harvesting and curing
Time of harvest depends upon variety and usually extends from January to March. Harvest early varieties at 7-8 months, medium varieties at 8-9 months and long duration varieties at 9-10 months after planting.

Improved method of processing

Cleaning: Harvested turmeric rhizomes are cleaned off mud and other extraneous materials adhering to them and subjected to curing within 2-3 days after harvest so as to ensure the quality of the end product.

Boiling: Fingers and mother rhizomes will have to be boiled separately. Boiling is usually done in MS pans of suitable size. Cleaned rhizomes (approximately 50 kg) are taken in a perforated trough of size 0.9 m x 0.55 m x 0.4 m made of GI or MS sheet with extended handle. The trough containing the rhizomes is then immersed in MS pan (1 m x 0.62 m x 0.48 m) containing clean water sufficient to immerse the rhizomes. The whole mass is boiled till the rhizomes become soft. The correct stage of cooking can be judged by piercing a wooden needle through the rhizome. If the rhizomes are properly cooked, the needle will pass through the rhizome without resistance. The cooked rhizomes are taken out of the pan by lifting the trough and draining the solution into the pan.

Drying: The fingers are then dried in the sun by spreading them as a thin layer on bamboo mats or drying floor. Artificial drying at a maximum temperature of 65ºC gives a bright coloured product than that of sun drying especially for sliced turmeric.

Polishing

In order to smoothen the rough and hard outer surface of the boiled dried turmeric and also to improve its colour, it is subjected to polishing. There are two types of polishing, hand polishing and machine polishing.

Hand polishing: The method of hand polishing is simple, which consists of rubbing turmeric fingers on hard surface or trampling them under feet wrapped in gunny bags. The improved method is by using hand-operated barrel or drum mounted on a central axis, the sides of which are made of expanded metal mesh. When the drum filled with turmeric is rotated, polishing is effected by abrasion of the surface against the mesh as well as by mutual rubbing against each other as they roll inside the drum.

Machine polishing: This method consists of an octagonal or hexagonal wooden drum mounted on a central axis and rotated by power.

Colouring
Boiled, dried and half polished turmeric fingers (half polished turmeric is more suitable since colour does not stick to the rhizomes that have been polished fully to smooth finish) are taken in bamboo basket and shaken with turmeric powder. For coating 100 kg of half polished turmeric 200 g of turmeric powder is required. When fingers are uniformly coated with turmeric powder, they are dried in the sun.

Turmeric oleoresin
This is obtained by the solvent extraction of the ground spice with organic solvents like acetone, ethylene dichloride and ethanol for 4-5 hours. It is orange red in colour. Oleoresin yield ranges from 7.9 to 10.4 per cent. One kg of oleoresin replaces 8 kg of ground spice.

Plant protection
No major incidence of pest or disease is noticed in the crop. Shoot borers can be controlled by spraying 0.05% dimethoate or 0.025% quinalphos.

Leaf spot and leaf blotch can be controlled by spraying 1% Bordeaux mixture or 0.2% mancozeb. If symptoms of early wilt or rhizome rot appear, drench the soil with cheshunt compound or 1% Bordeaux mixture.

CROP HUSBANDRY-NUTMEG CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-03T06:08:00.000-08:00

NUTMEG (Myristica fragrans)

Nutmeg requires a hot, humid climate without pronounced dry season. The soil should be rich in organic matter and well drained. The tree prefers partial shade. Sheltered valleys are the best suited. It can be grown up to about 900 m above MSL.

Variety: IISR-Viswashree

Seeds and sowing
Fully ripened tree-burst fruits are selected for raising seedlings. The fleshy rind and the mace are removed before sowing. The seeds should be sown immediately after collection. If there is any delay in sowing, the seeds should be kept in baskets filled with damp soil. The seedbeds of 100-120 cm width, 15 cm height and of convenient length may be prepared in cool and shady places. A mixture of garden soil and sand in the ratio 3:1 may be used for preparing nursery beds. Over this, sand is spread to a thickness of 2-3 cm and the seeds dibbled 2 cm below the surface at a spacing of about 12 cm on either side. Seeds germinate within 50-80 days after sowing. When the plumule produces two elongated opposite leaves, the seedlings are to be transferred from beds to polybags.

Planting
Since the nutmeg trees require shade, suitable fast growing shade trees like Albizia, Erythrina etc. are planted in advance. Banana can also be grown as a shade crop in the early stages. Pits of 90 x 90 x 90 cm are dug at a spacing of 8 x 8 m with the onset of southwest monsoon. The pits are filled with topsoil and compost or well-decomposed cattle manure and seedlings are planted.

Manuring
Apply 10 kg cattle manure or compost per seedling during the first year. Increase the quantity gradually till a well-grown tree of 15 years and above receives 50 kg of organic manures per year. Apply N:P2O5:K2O @ 20:18:50 g/plant during the first year. This may be doubled in the next year. Gradually increase the N:P2O5:K2O dose to 500:250:1000 g/plant/year to obtain full dose from 15th year onwards.

Harvesting
Fruits are available throughout the year, but the peak period of harvest is from December to May. When fruits are fully ripe, the nuts split open. These are either plucked from the tree or allowed to drop. The two major products are nutmeg and mace. Dried nutmeg and mace are directly used as spice and also for the preparation of their derivatives.

After de-rinding the nutmeg fruit, red feathery aril (mace) is separated from pericarp. The mace is detached, flattened and dried in sun on mats for 3-5 days.

The nuts are dried in the sun for six to eight days till they rattle in their shell. They are stored in warm dry place prior to shelling.

Oleoresin
Nutmeg and mace oleoresins are prepared by extracting the ground spice with organic solvents. Yield of oleoresin is 10-12 per cent for nutmeg and 10-13 per cent for mace. Mace oleoresin possesses a fine, fresh fruity character.

Nutmeg butter
Nutmeg contains 25-40 per cent of fixed oil that can be obtained by pressing the crushed nuts between plates in the presence of steam or by extracting with solvents. The product, known as nutmeg butter, is a highly aromatic, orange coloured fat with the consistency of butter at ambient temperature.

Nutmeg oil
This is obtained as pale yellow to white volatile liquid possessing a fresh warm aromatic odour. The yield ranges from 7 to 16 %. The unshelled nuts are coarsely crushed in a mechanical cracker and steam distilled.

Mace oil
The mace yields 4-17 % colourless to pale yellow liquid possessing organoleptic properties similar to nutmeg oil. Nutmeg and mace oil are also used for flavouring.

Pests
The hard scale Saissetia nigra occurs on the pencil thick branches and desaps the tissues. The infested shoots invariably develop sooty mould cover. It can be controlled by spot spraying with quinalphos 0.025%.

Diseases

Leaf spot and shot hole (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides)
Sunken spots surrounded by a yellow halo are the initial symptoms. Subsequently the central portion of the necrotic region drops off resulting in shot hole symptoms. Dieback symptoms are also observed in some of the mature branches. On young seedlings drying of the leaves and subsequent defoliation are seen. The disease can be controlled by spraying 1% Bordeaux mixture two or three times during rainy season.

Fruit rot
This is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Botryodiplodia theobromae. Water soaked lesions are seen on the fruits, the tissues of which become discoloured and disintegrated. Premature splitting of the pericarp and rotting of mace and seed are the main symptoms of the disease. The internal tissues are found rotten. The fallen fruits become enveloped with the growth of the organism. The disease can be controlled by spraying 1% Bordeaux mixture.

The other diseases include leaf blight (Botryodiplodia theobromae), leaf spot (Alternaria citri), sooty mould (Phragmocapnius sp.) and the algal leaf spot (Cephaleuros sp.).

CROP HUSBANDRY-MANGO-GINGER CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-03T06:06:00.000-08:00

MANGO-GINGER (Curcuma amada)

It is an under-exploited spice crop, which grows luxuriantly in tropical soils with good drainage. The rhizomes of mango-ginger are used for preparing pickles, chutney, preserve, candy, sauce and salad and in meat and other culinary preparations. The rhizome has excellent medicinal properties and finds extensive use in the indigenous system of medicine. It is, appetizer, antipyretic, aphrodisiac and laxative. It is useful in biliousness, itching, skin diseases, bronchitis, asthma, hiccough and inflammation due to injuries. The rhizomes and roots are carminative and stomachic and in crushed pulp form they are applied over contusions, sprains and bruises for rapid healing.

Mango-ginger is botanically related to neither mango nor ginger, but to turmeric (Curcuma longa). Morphologically mango-ginger plant is similar to turmeric, but has shorter crop duration of six months. The rhizomes are pale yellow inside with lighter colour outside, have sweet smell of unripe mango when crushed. The crop comes up well in open conditions, but tolerates low levels of shade and therefore partially shaded situations can also be utilized for its cultivation. It can be well accommodated as an intercrop in coconut gardens and in rotation with other short duration crops like vegetables and also as a crop component in homesteads.

Preparation of land
Prepare the land to a good tilth during February-March subject to the availability of pre-monsoon showers. Prepare beds of convenient length, 1.2 m width, 25 cm height and 40 cm spacing between beds.

Seed material and varieties
Whole or split mother rhizomes or well developed, healthy and disease free finger rhizomes weighing 15-20 g are suitable for planting. In Kerala, local varieties are used for cultivation. Amba is a released variety from High Altitude Research Station, Pottangi, Orissa.

Season and method of planting
Plant during April with the commencement of pre-monsoon showers. Take small pits in the beds with a spacing of 25 x 30 cm and at a depth of 4-5 cm. Adopt a seed rate of 1500 kg/ha.

Manuring
Apply cattle manure or compost as basal dose @ 30-40 t/ha, spread over the beds and mix well. Apply N:P2O5:K2O fertilizer @ 30:30:60 kg/ha. Full dose of P2O5 and half dose of K2O may be applied as basal. Apply two-third dose of nitrogen 30 days after planting and remaining N and K2O at 60 days after planting.

Mulching
Mulch the crop immediately after planting with green leaves @ 15 t/ha. Repeat mulching after 50 days with same quantity of green leaves.

Aftercultivation
The rhizomes germinate within 3-4 weeks. Remove weeds 45 days after planting and repeat if necessary. Earth up the crop after 60 days of planting.

Plant protection
Compared to the related crops ginger and turmeric, the crop is free from pests and diseases. But when large-scale cultivation is taken up, the attack of shoot borer (Conogethes punctiferalis) causes, damage to the crop. Appearance of dead heart in the field is the main symptom. To reduce the pest population, pull out the dead hearts with the larvae inside and burn it. If infestation is severe, spray dimethoate or quinalphos at 0.05%.

CROP HUSBANDRY-GINGER CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-03T06:03:00.000-08:00

GINGER (Zingiber officinale)

Ginger is a tropical plant adapted for cultivation even in regions of subtropical climate such as the high ranges. It prefers a rich soil with high humus content. Being an exhausting crop, ginger is not cultivated continuously in the same field but shifting cultivation is practised. The crop cannot withstand waterlogging and hence soils with good drainage are preferred for its cultivation. It is shade tolerant / loving crop with shallow roots and therefore suitable for intercropping and as a component in the homesteads where low to medium shade is available.

Preparation of land
Clear the field during February-March and burn the weeds, stubbles, roots etc. in situ. Prepare the land by ploughing or digging. Prepare beds of convenient length (across the slope where the land is undulating), 1 m wide, 25 cm high with 40 cm spacing between the beds. Provide drainage channels, one for every 25 beds on flat lands.

Varieties

Dry ginger: Maran, Wayanad, Manantoddy, Himachal, Valluvanad, Kuruppampady, IISR-Varada, IISR-Rejatha and IISR-Mahima

Green ginger: Rio-De-Janeiro, China, Wayanad Local and Tafengiya

Rio-De-Janeiro is preferable for extraction of oleoresin

Planting material

Ginger rhizomes are used for planting. For selection and preservation of seeds, adopt the following methods:

Mark healthy and disease free plants in the field when the crop is 6-8 months old and still green. Select best rhizomes free from pest and disease from the marked plants. Handle seed rhizomes carefully to avoid damage to buds. Soak the selected rhizomes for 30 minutes in a solution of mancozeb and malathion to give terminal concentration of 0.3% for the former and 0.1% for the latter. Dry the treated rhizomes in shade by spreading on the floor. Store the treated rhizomes in pits dug under shade, the floor of which is lined with sand or saw dust. It is advisable to spread layers of leaves of Glycosmis pentaphylla (panal). Cover the pits with coconut fronds.

Examine the stored rhizomes at monthly intervals and remove the rhizomes that show signs of rotting. This will help to keep the inoculum level low. Provide one or two holes for better aeration. Treat the seed rhizomes similarly before planting also.

Season and method of planting
The best time for planting ginger is during the first fortnight of April, after receipt of pre-monsoon showers. For irrigated ginger, the best-suited time for planting is middle of February (for vegetable ginger).

Plant rhizome bits of 15 g weight in small pits at a spacing of 20 x 20 cm to 25 x 25 cm and at a depth of 4-5 cm with at least one viable healthy bud facing upwards. Adopt a seed rate of 1500 kg/ha.

Manuring

Apply manures and fertilizers at the following rates.

FYM

30 t/ha

N:P2O5:K2O

75:50:50: kg/ha/year

Full dose of P2O5 and 50% of K2O may be applied as basal. Half the quantity of N may be applied 60 days after planting. The remaining quantity of N and K2O may be applied 120 days after planting.

Mulching
Immediately after planting, mulch the beds thickly with green leaves @ 15 t/ha. Repeat mulching with green leaves twice @ 7.5 t/ha first 44-60 days and second 90-120 days after planting. Grow green manure crops like daincha and sunn hemp in the interspaces of beds, along with ginger and harvest the green manure crop during second mulching of ginger beds.

Aftercultivation
Remove weeds by hand-weeding before each mulching. Repeat weeding according to weed growth during the fifth and sixth month after planting. Earth up the crop during the first mulching and avoid water stagnation.

Plant protection
1. For control of shoot borer spray dimethoate or quinalphos at 0.05%
2. For control of rhizome rot adopt the following measures:
a. Select sites having proper drainage.
b. Select seed rhizomes from disease free areas.
c. Treat seed rhizomes with 0.3% mancozeb.
d. When incidence of rhizome rot is noted in the field, dig out the affected plants and drench the beds with cheshunt compound or 1% Bordeaux mixture or 0.3% mancozeb.
e. Inoculation with native arbuscular mycorrhiza, Trichoderma and Pseudomonas fluorescens at the time of planting is recommended as a biocontrol measure.
3. For controlling the leaf spot disease, 1% Bordeaux mixture, 0.3% mancozeb or 0.2% thiram may be sprayed.
4. For control of nematode in endemic area, apply neem cake @ 1 t/ha at planting and carbofuran 1 kg ai/ha at 45 DAP.

Harvesting and processing
For vegetable ginger, the crop can be harvested from sixth month onwards. For dry ginger, harvest the crop between 245-260 days. After harvest, the fibrous roots attached to the rhizomes are trimmed off and soil is removed by washing. Rhizomes are soaked in water overnight and then cleaned. The skin is removed by scrapping with sharp bamboo splits or such other materials. Never use metallic substances since they will discolour the rhizomes. After scrapping, the rhizomes are sun-dried for a week with frequent turnings. They are again well rubbed by hand to remove any outer skin. This is the unbleached ginger of commerce. The peeled rhizomes are repeatedly immersed in lime solution (2%) and allowed to dry in the sun for 10 days while rhizomes receive a uniform coating of lime. This is the bleached ginger of commerce.

Ginger oil
Ginger oil is prepared commercially by steam distillation of dried powdered ginger. The yield of oil varies from 1.3 to 3.0 per cent. The major use of ginger oil is as a flavouring agent for beverages, both alcoholic and non-alcoholic.

Ginger oleoresin
Oleoresin from ginger is obtained conventionally by extraction of dried powdered ginger with organic solvents like ethyl acetate, ethanol or acetone. Commercial dried ginger yields 3.5-10.0 per cent oleoresin. Ginger oleoresin is a dark brown viscous liquid responsible for the flavour and pungency of the spice.

CROP HUSBANDRY-VANILLA CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-03T06:00:00.000-08:00

VANILLA (Vanilla planifolia)

Vanilla is a tropical orchid requiring a warm climate with frequent rains, preferring an annual rainfall of 150-300 cm. Uncleared jungle areas are ideal for establishing vanilla plantations. In such locations, it would be necessary to retain the natural shade provided by lofty trees and to leave the soil or the rich humus layer on the top undisturbed. Vanilla is cultivated on varied type of soils from sandy loam to laterites. It requires filtered sun light. In the absence of natural shade, trees should be grown to provide shade.

Preparation of land

Clear the land of jungle growth and prepare for planting. Being a creeper, the plant requires support up to a height of about 130-135 cm. Cuttings of Plumaria alba, Erythrina lithosperma, Jatropha carcas and Glyricidia maculata are suitable as live supports. The growth of live standard is to be adjusted to make them branch at a height of 120-150 cm to facilitate trailing of the vines and artificial hand pollination.

Time and method of planting
Vanilla is propagated by planting shoot cuttings in situ. Plant rooted cuttings of 60 cm length. Longer cuttings bear earlier than shorter cuttings. Rooted cuttings as well as tissue culture derived plants can also be used for planting.

Plant the cutting with the onset of monsoon rains. Set out the cutting at a spacing of 2.7 m between plants and 1.8 m between rows in pits of size 40 x 40 x 40 cm. Trail the vines on the live supports and when they attain a height of 135 cm trail them horizontally on bamboo poles tied to vertical supports or branches of support plants in loops touching the ground.

Manuring
Being a surface rooting plant, manuring should be confined to the surface layer of soil. Provide heavy and frequent mulching to the vines. Apply 120 g of N in the form of leaf mould or FYM in two split doses in June-July and September-October.

Aftercultivation
Vanilla cannot withstand even the slightest root disturbance. Hence remove weeds from the plant base by hand-weeding and use them as mulch.

Being closely planted, no intercrops are raised in a pure plantation of vanilla. But vanilla can be planted as an intercrop in coffee, coconut, arecanut etc.

Pollination, harvesting and curing
Flowering of vine commences usually by about the third year. The inflorescence is produced in the leaf axils. There is a tendency for some of the vines to maintain only vegetative growth. A light nipping off or pruning of the terminal shoots hastens flowering. Due to the peculiar structure of the flowers, self-pollination is impossible. Hence hand pollination is adopted for fruit set. Best time for pollinating the flowers is between 6 a.m. and 1 p.m. and a success of 80-85% can be obtained. Successful fertilization is indicated by the retention of calyx and the stigma even after four days of pollination.

The pods ripen in about 9-11 months time. Before attaining maturity the fruit is dark green in colour and when ripe yellowing commences from the tip of the pod. Collect the pods at this time, as this is the optimum time for harvesting the pod. If allowed to remain on the vine further, the pods split. Free vanillin is not present in the beans when they are harvested. They also do not have the aroma. Vanillin is developed as a result of enzyme action on a glycoside occurring during the process of curing of beans.

Harvested beans are subjected to curing which is characterized by four phases.

1. Killing or wilting beans to arrest the vegetative development in the fresh beans and initiate the enzymatic reactions responsible for the production of aroma and flavour. Killing is indicated by the development of a brown colouration of the bean.
2. Raising temperature of the killed beans (sweating) to promote the desired enzymatic reactions and to achieve rapid drying so as to prevent harmful fermentation.
3. Slow drying at ambient temperature until the beans have reached about one-third of original weight for the development of various fragrant substances.
4. Conditioning the beans by storing them in closed boxes for three months or longer to permit the full development of desired aroma and flavour.

Curing of vanilla involves immersing the beans (2-3 days after harvest) in hot water at a temperature of 63 to 65ºC for three minutes for the cessation of vegetative life. After a rapid drying on woolen blankets, when the beans are still very hot, they are kept in chests lined with blankets. Next day they are spread out in sun on blanket for three to four hours and rolled up to retain the heat. Repeat this for six to eight days during which beans lose their weight, become supple and can be twisted on finger without breaking. This is followed by slow drying in the shade for a period of two to three months.
Properly dried beans are kept in trunks where the fragrance is fully developed. Finally, they are graded according to size and bundled and placed in iron boxes lined with paraffin paper. The vanillin content of properly cured beans will be about 2.5 per cent.

Plant protection

The occurrence of a wilt disease caused by Fusarium oxysporum has been observed. For control of wilt disease adopt the following measures.

1. Remove diseased plants along with surrounding soil where the disease is observed.
2. Remove weeds around the plants.
3. Mulch the base of the vine with dry leaves before and after monsoon.
4. Avoid injury to roots during cultivation.
5. Drench soil around the base of vine with 1% Bordeaux mixture.

Fungal diseases like shoot tip rot, stem and bean rot caused by Phytophthora sp. as well as immature bean drop are noticed. The disease-affected portions are to be removed regularly and 1% Bordeaux mixture should be applied on the affected plants.

CROP HUSBANDRY-CLOVE CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-03T05:58:00.000-08:00

CLOVE (Syzygium aromaticum)

Clove requires a warm humid tropical climate with an annual rainfall from 150-250 cm. It grows well from mean sea level up to an altitude of 800-900 m. Deep loam soils with high humus content and black loams of semi-forest regions with good drainage are suited for the cultivation of the crop.

Selection of site
Select partially shaded sites having adequate protection from high winds. Avoid exposed and shady locations.

Seeds and sowing
Clove is propagated through seeds obtained from fully developed fruits known as mother of clove. Collect fully developed fruits from regular bearing mother trees. Dehusk the fruits immediately after collection by soaking in water and peeling. Prepare raised nursery beds with fertile soil rich in humus under the shade of trees. Sow the seeds flat at a depth 2-5 cm and a spacing of 12-15 cm. Water the beds regularly. Seedlings can either be retained in the nursery till they attain a height of 25-30 cm when they are ready for transplanting or potted when they are six months old and transplanted after another 12-18 months.

Planting
Select 18 month old seedlings for planting. Prepare pits of size 60 x 60 x 60 cm at a spacing of 6 x 6 m about a month in advance of planting. Allow to weather. Fill up the pits with mixture of burnt earth, compost and topsoil. Plant the seedlings during the rainy season, May-June or August-September. Provide shade and irrigation during breaks in the monsoon and summer. Banana or glyricidia may be planted to provide shade.

Clove is generally grown as a mixed crop with coffee, coconut, arecanut etc.

Manuring

Apply cattle manure or compost at the rate of 15 kg / tree / annum during May-June.

The recommended fertilizer dose is N:P2O5: K2O @ 20:18:50 g/plant during the first year and N:P2O5:K2O @ 40:36:100 g/plant during the second year. Increase gradually the N:P2O5:K2O dose to 300:250:750 g/plant/year for a well grown tree of 15 years or more. Apply organic manures in May-June with the commencement of southwest monsoon. Apply fertilizers in two equal split doses in May-June along with the organic manures and in September-October in shallow trenches dug around the plant about 1 to 1.25 m away from the base.

Aftercultivation
Conduct weeding and intercultivation whenever necessary. Cut and remove dead and diseased branches of full-grown trees to prevent over crowding. Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture to control dieback.

Harvesting and curing
The trees begin to yield from 7-8 years after planting. The stage of harvest of flower buds determines the quality of the final dried product. Buds are harvested when the base of calyx has turned from green to pink in colour. If allowed to develop beyond this stage, the buds open, petals drop and an inferior quality spice is obtained on drying.

Prior to drying, buds are removed from the stem by holding the cluster in one hand and pressing it against the palm of the other with a slight twisting movement. The clove buds and stems are piled separately for drying. Buds may be sorted to remove over-ripe cloves and fallen flowers. Drying should be done immediately after the buds are separated from the clusters. If left too long in heaps, they ferment and the dried spice has a whitish shriveled appearance (khoker clove).

The traditional method of drying is by exposing them to sun in mats. The green buds are spread out in a thin layer on the drying floor and are raked from time to time to ensure the development of a uniform colour and to prevent mould formation. In sunny weather, drying is completed in 4-5 days giving a bright coloured dried spice of attractive appearance. During drying, clove loses about two-third of its original fresh green weight. When properly dried, it will turn bright brown and does not bend when pressed. The dried cloves are sorted to remove mother of cloves and khoker cloves, bagged and stored in a dry place. The stem after separation of buds is dried in a similar manner as the spice, without allowing mould formation and fermentation.

Clove bud oil
The essential oil is obtained by steam distillation of comminuted buds or whole cloves. On distillation, about 17 per cent essential oil is obtained which is a colourless or yellow liquid possessing odour and flavour characteristic of the spice. Finest oil contains 85-89 per cent eugenol. Clove bud oil is used for flavouring food and in perfumery.

Clove stem oil
Clove stem oil is obtained from dried peduncles and stem of clove buds (5-7%) on steam distillation. The eugenol content of the oil ranges from 90-95 per cent. This oil possesses a coarser and woodier odour than bud oil.

Clove leaf oil
Clove leaves on distillation yield 2-3 per cent oil as a dark brown liquid with a harsh woody odour. When rectified, it turns pale yellow and smells sweeter with a eugenol content of 80 to 85 per cent.

Oleoresin
Clove oleoresin may be prepared by cold or hot extraction of crushed spices using organic solvents like acetone giving a recovery of 18-22 per cent. The oleoresin is chiefly used in perfumery and when used for flavouring it is dispersed on salt, flour etc.

Plant protection

Pests
Infestation of shoot borer Sinoxylon sp. on tender shoots of young plants can be prevented by prophylactic application of carbaryl 0.15%. Prune off the laterals of old trees showing dieback symptoms. Do not allow dried glyricidia and other twigs to remain in the plantation, to ensure that the beetles will not multiply on these materials and subsequently initiate infestation in cloves.

Diseases

Leaf spot, twig blight and flower bud shedding (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides)

Three types of symptoms are seen viz., leaf spot, twig blight and flower bud shedding. On the leaves, necrotic spots of variable sizes and shapes are noticed. Severely affected leaves wither, drop and dry up. In the nursery seedlings, dieback symptoms are seen. Extension of the symptoms from the leaves through petioles results in the infection of twigs. The affected branches stand without leaves or only with young leaves at the tips. The flower buds are attacked by spread of infection from the twigs. Shedding of flower buds occurs during periods of heavy and continuous rainfall.

Control

Spraying 1% Bordeaux mixture at 1-1.5 month intervals reduces disease intensity, defoliation and flower bud shedding. The spraying has to be commenced just prior to flower bud formation and continued till the harvest of flower buds for effective control. Destruction of the weed Clerodendron from the clove garden is recommended to reduce the disease since the pathogen survives on this weed during adverse conditions.

The other diseases of clove are:
Grey blight of clove (Pestalotia palmarum)
Leaf spot of clove (Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum)
Leaf spot of clove (Alternaria citri)
Sooty mould of clove (Phragmocapnius sp.)
Algal leaf spot of clove (Cephaleuros sp.)
Little leaf of clove (suspected to be due to phytoplasma).

CROP HUSBANDRY-CINNAMON CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-03T05:55:00.000-08:00

CINNAMON (Cinnamomum zeylanicum)

Cinnamon grows in areas up to an altitude of about 1800 m. Humid tropical evergreen rain forest conditions favour the best growth of cinnamon. Well-drained, deep sandy soil, rich in humus is suitable for the crop. Avoid marshy areas and hard laterites.

Varieties
Navasree, Nithyasree and Sugandini.

Seeds and sowing
Cinnamon is usually propagated through seeds. Sow seeds immediately after harvest on raised beds. Pot seedlings when they are six months old.

Planting
Select seedlings with green leaf petioles. Plant seedlings in the main field when they are 1-2 year old with the commencement of southwest monsoon. Planting is done in pits of size 60 x 60 cm at a spacing of 2 x 2 m. Dig the pits sufficiently early to allow weathering. Fill the pit with leaf mould and topsoil before planting.

Manuring
Apply N:P2O5:K2O @ 20:20:25 g/seedling in the first year and double this dose in the second year. Cattle manure or compost at 20 kg / plant / annum may also be applied. Increase the dose of N:P2O5:K2O gradually to 200:180:200 g / tree / year for grown up plants of 10 years and above.

Apply organic manures in May-June and fertilizers in two equal split doses, in May-June and September-October.

Aftercultivation
Weed regularly in the early stages of growth. Irrigate the seedlings till they get established, if there is long drought period.
Prune plants when they are 2-3 years old at a height of 15 cm above ground level. Cut the side shoots growing from the base to encourage growth of more side shoots till the whole plant assumes the shape of a low bush.

Harvesting and curing
The plants will be ready for harvest in about 3 years after planting. Harvesting is done during two seasons, the first in May and second in November. The correct time for cutting the shoots for peeling is determined by noting the sap circulation between the wood and corky layer. Peelers can judge this by making a test cut on the stem with a sharp knife. If the bark separates readily, the cutting is taken immediately. Stems measuring 2.0 to 2.5 cm in diameter and 1.5 to 2.0 m length are cut early in the morning and twigs and leaves are detached. The outer brown skin is first scrapped off and the stem is rubbed briskly to loosen the bark. Two cuts are made round the stem about 30 cm apart and two longitudinal slits are made on opposite sides of the stem. The bark is separated from the wood with curved knife. The detached pieces of bark are made into compound quills. The best and longest quills are used on the outside while inside is filled with smaller pieces. The compound quills are rolled by hand to press the outside edges together and are neatly trimmed. They are dried in shade as direct exposure to sun can result in warping. The dried quills consist of mixture of coarse and fine types and are yellowish brown in colour.

The quills are graded as Fine or Continental, Mexican and Hamburg or Ordinary. The Fine consists of quills of uniform thickness, colour and quality and the joints of the quills are neat. Mexican grades are intermediate in quality. The Hamburg grade consists of thicker and darker quills. The lower grades are exported as: (a) Quillings: The broken lengths and fragments of quills of all grades are bulked and sold as quillings; (b) Featherings: This grade consists of the inner bark of twigs and twisted shoots that do not give straight quills of normal length.

Chips: This includes the trimmings of the cut shoots, shavings of outer and inner bark, which cannot be separated, or which are obtained from small twigs and odd pieces of thick outer bark.

Oleoresin
Cinnamon oleoresin is prepared by extracting cinnamon bark with organic solvent. Oleoresin yield varies form 10 to 12 per cent. The oleoresin is dispersed on sugar, salt and used for flavouring processed foods.

Cinnamon bark oil
A pale yellow liquid possessing the delicate aroma of the spice is obtained by steam distillation of quills (0.2 to 0.5%). Its major component is cinnamaldehyde (55%) but other components like eugenol, eugenyl acetate, ketones, esters and terpenes also impart the characteristic odour and flavour to this oil. Cinnamon bark oil is used in flavouring bakery foods, sauces, pickles, confectionery, soft drinks, dental and pharmaceutical preparations and also in perfumery.

Cinnamon leaf oil
Cinnamon leaf oil is produced by steam distillation of leaves yielding 0.5 to 0.7% oil. It is yellow to brownish yellow in colour and possesses a warm, spicy but rather harsh odour. The major constituent is eugenol (70 to 90 %) while the cinnamaldehyde content is less than five per cent. The oil is used in perfumery and flavouring, and also as a source of eugenol.

Cinnamon root bark oil
The root bark contains 1.0 to 2.8% oil containing camphor as the main constituent. Cinnamaldehyde as well as traces of eugenol are found in the oil, having less commercial relevance.

Plant protection

Leaf spot and dieback disease (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides)

On young nursery seedlings, small brown specks appear which gradually enlarge resulting in drying of the leaf. From the leaves, the infection spreads to the stem, resulting in necrosis from the apex downwards.

On old seedlings and mature trees, light and dark brown concentric zonation occurs. Spraying 1% Bordeaux mixture during rainy season controls the disease.

The other diseases of cinnamon include grey blight caused by Pestalotiopsis palmarum, sooty mould caused by Phragmocapnius sp. and algal leaf spot by Cephaleuros sp.

CROP HUSBANDRY-CARDAMOM CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-03T05:48:00.000-08:00

CARDAMOM (Elettaria cardamomum)

The habitat of small cardamom is the evergreen forests of Western Ghats. It is grown in areas where the annual rainfall ranges from 1500-4000 mm with a temperature range of 10-35 ºC and an altitude of 600-1200 m above MSL.

Cardamom is generally grown in forest loam soils rich in available phosphorus and potassium. The crop is raised mainly on well drained, deep, good textured soils rich in humus.

Varieties
ICRI-1, ICRI-2, PV-1 and PV-2.

Cultivars
Malabar: Suitable for areas from 600 to 1200 m elevation
Mysore: Suitable for areas from 900 to 1200 m elevation
Vazhukka: Suitable for areas from 900 to 1200 m elevation

Propagation
Cardamom can be propagated vegetatively and by seedlings. For vegetative propagation, rhizomes with not less than three shoots are used. Plants propagated vegetatively come to bearing one year earlier than the seedling-propagated plants. But this method has the disadvantage of spreading the `katte' disease, which is of viral origin. This disease is not transmitted through seeds. Hence in areas where the disease is widespread, it would be safer to use seedlings for propagation.

Nursery
Ripe capsules of the desired cultivar are collected from high yielding plants during September-October. The seeds are extracted by gently pressing the capsules. In order to increase the germination percentage, seeds can be treated with concentrated sulfuric acid or nitric acid for not more than two minutes. The extracted seeds are washed in cold water four times to remove the mucilaginous coating. The washed seeds are drained and mixed with ash and allowed to dry in shade for 2 or 3 days. The seeds should be sown in the nursery within a fortnight. Sowing in September is the best for high germination. Sowing during southwest monsoon and winter should be avoided.

When it becomes necessary to store the seeds, it is advisable to store them in capsule form. It can be preserved in this form for one month, without deterioration of viability. Polythene lined gunny bags can be used for this.

In Kerala and Tamil Nadu, 18 month old seedlings are used for planting. The seeds are sown in primary nursery from where the young seedlings are transplanted to a secondary nursery and maintained for one year before planting in the main field.

Primary nursery
The nursery site is selected in open, well-drained areas, near a source of water. The land is dug to a depth of 30 cm, cleared of all stubbles and stones; and clods are broken. Beds of size 6 x 1 x 0.3 m are then prepared. Jungle soil is spread in a thin layer over the nursery bed. Seeds are sown on the bed in lines. For an area of 1 m2, 10 g of seed is required. Sixty grams of seeds will be required for a nursery bed of 6 m2. The seeds are covered with a very thin layer of fine soil. The nursery bed is mulched with dry grass. Potha grass (Grenetia stricta) commonly seen in high range areas is a suitable material for this purpose. Grass is spread to a thickness of about 2 cm. Paddy straw can also be used for mulching. After sowing, beds have to be watered every day in the morning and evening. The mulch should be removed on commencement of germination. The seedlings have to be protected by providing shade pandals. Regular watering, weeding and protection from pests and diseases are to be attended to. During June-July, seedlings from the primary nursery are transplanted to the secondary nursery.

Secondary nursery
After preparing the site properly, form nursery beds of 6 x 1 x 0.3 m. Mixing of well decomposed cattle manure and wood ash with the top layer of the soil will help the seedlings to establish well and to grow vigorously. During June-July, the seedlings from the primary nursery are transplanted at a spacing of 25-30 cm. Shade pandals should be provided before transplanting. Overhead pandals or individual pandals for each bed may be erected. Mulching the bed with dry leaves will help to conserve soil moisture. Regular watering during dry months, weeding, application of fertilizers, control of pests and diseases and mulching are the essential operations for the maintenance of the secondary nursery. One month before uprooting, the pandal should be removed to encourage better tillering.

Polybag nursery
Polybags can be used for raising secondary seedlings. For such nurseries, seeds are to be sown in beds in primary nurseries in September and transplanted to polybags in December-January. These seedlings would be ready for planting in June-July. In this case, nursery period could be reduced by 6 to 7 months.

Rhizome multiplication
This may be taken up from the first week of March to the first fortnight of October. The site is selected in open, gently slopping and well-drained areas near a source of water. Trenches of 45 cm width, 45 cm depth and convenient length are taken across the slope or along the contour 1.8 m apart. They are filled with equal quantity of humus rich topsoil, sand and cattle manure. Uproot a part of the high yielding disease free mother clump identified in the plantation. Trim the roots and separate the suckers so that the minimum planting unit consists of one grown up tiller and a growing young shoot. Plant them at a spacing of 1.80 m x 0.60 m in filled up trenches. Provide sufficient mulch and stake each planting unit. Provide overhead pandal as in the case of seedling nursery and remove shading material with onset of monsoon rains. Provide irrigation once in a fortnight and adopt necessary plant protection measures. Apply fertilizers @ 100:50:200 kg/ha N:P2O5:K2O in six splits at an interval of two months. Apply neem cake @ 100-150 g/plant along with fertilizers. On an average, 20 to 30 suckers / initial planting unit can be produced within one year of planting. Care should be taken to identify and collect mother clumps only from areas totally free from 'katte' disease.

Soil treatment in nursery
It is recommended that the primary and secondary nursery soil may be drenched with formalin 2% solution and covered with polythene sheets for 3 days. Planting should be taken up only 15 days after treatment to avoid phytotoxicity.

Control of pests and diseases in the nursery
Rhizome weevil (Prodioctes haematicus)
This is a serious pest in the secondary nursery especially where seedlings are raised continuously year after year. The grubs feed on the rhizome and basal portion of the stem. This results in drying of leaves and breaking of stem at the base. Drenching the nursery beds with chlorpyrifos at 0.04% can control the pest.

Shoot fly (Formosina flavipes)
The pest is observed in the nursery during January to May. Dead heart or decay of the central spindle is the external symptom. Spraying of quinalphos 0.025% or application of phorate granules @ 1 g ai/m2 is recommended for the control of the pest.

Shoot borer (Conogethes punctiferalis)
The caterpillar bores into the stem and feeds on the internal contents. This results in the decay of the central spindle and production of dead heart. Faecal matter of the caterpillar can be seen coming out through the holes. Spraying with quinalphos 0.025%, carbaryl 0.1%, monocrotophos, fenthion or dimethoate at 0.05% or endosulfan or phenthoate at 0.1% is recommended against the shoot borer.

Nematodes
Nematodes are observed as serious pests in cardamom nurseries. Roots of cardamom seedlings are infested mainly by root knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita). Lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus) are also seen in cardamom roots and soils. The main symptoms of nematode infestation are galls on the root tips, profuse tillering, stunted and weak tillers, yellowing and drying of leaves and production of narrow, brittle and abnormal leaves. Treatment of soil as detailed above is an effective method to control nematode.

Fumigation of primary and secondary nursery beds with methyl bromide is another effective method for the control of nematodes in the nursery. Five hundred gram of methyl bromide is required for 10 m2 area. The treated area has to be kept covered with polythene sheet for two to three days. Pruning of infested roots tips before planting is also recommended.

Treat the plants in the nursery with carbofuran @ 5 kg ai/ha after 10 days of germination and this is repeated after 3 months. In secondary nurseries, the plants may be treated with carbofuran @ 10 kg ai/ha after transplanting and every three months thereafter.

Damping off
This disease is caused by Pythium vexans and Rhizoctonia solani. Infection is observed at the collar region. Provide good drainage, and spray and drench the nursery with 1% Bordeaux mixture or 0.2% copper oxychloride.

Nursery leaf spot
This disease is caused by Phyllosticta elettariae. Pale specks appear on the leaf lamina, which dry up and become paper white. Spraying the plants with mancozeb 0.25% at fortnightly intervals is effective in controlling the disease.

The other diseases are Sphaceloma leaf spot, Cercospora leaf spot, rust and sooty mould.

Main field planting
Cardamom plantation is raised in forests under the shade of tall trees. For raising a new cardamom plantation, the undergrowth of bushes is cleared. When open areas like marshy valleys and grasslands are selected for raising new plantation, shade trees have to be raised before planting cardamom seedlings. The quick growing shade trees like dadap (Erythrina lithosperma) is generally used for this purpose. Cuttings of this tree are used for planting. But this tree is a host of root knot nematode, which infests cardamom. Other quick growing trees like Albizia can also be used. Useful trees like jack and eucalyptus can be used along with red cedar, wild nutmeg, kurangatti etc.

Spacing

Mysore and Vazhukka: 2 x 2 m to 3 x 2 m depending on the fertility of the soil
Malabar: 1.5 x 1.5 m to 2 x 2 m depending on the fertility of the soil.

The recommended size of pits is 60 x 60 x 35 cm. The pits are filled with rich topsoil at least two months in advance of planting the seedlings. Application of well decomposed FYM or compost or leaf mould and 100 g of rock phosphate with the topsoil in the pit will help in proper establishment and quick growth of plants. If the selected site is a hill slope, terraces may be formed before digging pits.

Planting can be done with the commencement of southwest monsoon, before the heavy rains. A small pit may be formed inside the pit by scooping out soil at the centre of the pit for planting seedlings. The soil may be put just to cover the rhizomes. Care should be taken to ensure that the rhizomes do not go deep into the soil.

Cultural operations
A regular schedule of cultural practices consisting weeding, mulching, trashing, shade regulation, fertilizer application, irrigation, etc. will have to be undertaken.

Sufficient mulch should be applied at the base of the plant during December to reduce the ill effects of drought during summer months and to conserve soil moisture. Sickle weeding is essential which has to be carried out frequently depending upon the intensity of weeds. Forking is necessary in hard soils, which is to be carried out in October-November.

Trashing (removal of old and dried shoots, leaves and dried panicles) should be taken up once in a year during June-July, with the commencement of monsoon. This will help to prevent the spread of diseases and expose the panicles to easy visit by honeybees.
Soil conservation measures, maintenance of drainage channels and such other operations may be taken up promptly.

Manuring
Application of organic manures such as FYM, cowdung or compost @ 5 kg / plant or neem cake @ 1-2 kg / plant may be done during June-July. The present recommendation of nutrients for cardamom in Kerala is N:P2O5:K2O @ 75:75:150 kg/ha. The fertilizers may be applied in two split doses, before and after the southwest monsoon, in a circular band of 20 cm wide and 30-40 cm away from the base of the clumps, and mixed with soil.

Shade
Since inadequate as well as excessive levels of shade are harmful to the crop, regulation of shade is inevitable. There should be sufficient shade to protect cardamom plant during the hot season. By regulating the shade before the monsoon, more light becomes available to the plant during the rainy season. Red cedar or chandana-vempu (Toona ciliata) is an ideal shade tree. It sheds the leaves during rainy season and thus provides natural shade regulation. Some of the other shade trees are kurangatti (Acrocarpus fraxinifolius), vellakil (Dysoxylum malabaricum) and thelli (Canarium strictum).

Bee-keeping for better pollination
The main pollination agent in cardamom is honeybee (Apis cerana indica). Maintaining four bee colonies per hectare during the flowering season is recommended for increasing fruit set and production of capsules.

Harvesting and processing
Cardamom plants normally start bearing capsules from the third year of planting. Picking is carried out at an interval of 30 days. After harvest, cardamom capsules are processed.

Cardamom capsules with green colour fetch a premium price in foreign countries. Hence emphasis has to be given on the preservation of green colour during curing and subsequent storage. Capsule should be processed within 24-36 hours after harvest to prevent deterioration. By curing, the moisture of green cardamom is reduced to 8-12 per cent at an optimum temperature so as to retain its green colour to the maximum extent.

Harvesting season in Kerala is October-February and the peak period of harvest is September-November.

Sun-drying
Capsules are dried directly under sunlight for five to six days or more. Frequent turning is done. This method can result in surface blemishes and may not give an attractive green colour. This method is practiced if the cultivar yields fruits that turn yellow before they are ready for picking and where facilities for green curing are not available.

Artificial drying
Processing of capsules is done in specially built curing houses. The harvested capsules are washed in water to remove dust and soil particles. Then they are spread on wire net trays in curing chamber. Burning firewood in the iron kiln produces heat required for drying. The heat thus produced is passed through pipes made of galvanized iron sheets. The process of drying takes about 18-24 hours, depending on the ambient temperature. The capsules are spread thinly in the wire net trays and stirred frequently to ensure uniform drying. They are initially heated at 50 ºC for the first 4 hours and heat is then reduced to 45 ºC by opening ventilators and operating exhaust fans till the capsules are properly dried. Finally the temperature is raised to 60 ºC for an hour.

The dried capsules are rubbed on wire mesh to remove the stalk and dried portion of flower from the capsules and then graded according to size by passing through sieves of sizes of 7, 6.5, 6 mm etc. The graded produce is stored in polythene lined gunny bags to retain the green colour during storage and also to avoid exposure to moisture.

A relatively new innovation in the curing procedure is blanching by soaking the fruits in 2.0 per cent washing soda for 10 minutes prior to drying. This inhibits colour loss during drying operation and extends colour retention during subsequent storage from three months to ten months.

Bleaching
A proportion of the crop is bleached after sun drying by exposing the capsules to fumes from burning sulphur to get uniform colour and appearance. Steeping capsules in a dilute solution of potassium metabisulphite solution induces a slight improvement in keeping quality.

Oleoresin
Solvent extraction of ground spice yields 10 per cent oleoresin. Cardamom oleoresin is used for flavouring food after being dispersed in salt, flour etc. One kilogram of oleoresin replaces 20 kg ground spice.

Decorticated seeds / seed powder
Decorticated seeds command a lower price due to rapid loss of volatile oil during storage and transportation. Seed powder is marketed to a limited extent.

Control of pests and diseases in the plantation

Cardamom thrips (Sciothrips cardamomi)
This insect is a serious pest of cardamom. It colonizes and breeds in unopened leaves, leaf sheath, flower bracts and flower tubes. It lacerates and feeds on the exuding sap from the aerial parts. Infestation on the panicle and flower buds results in stunted growth of panicles, shedding of flower buds and warty growth on the surviving capsules. The infested capsules are light in weight, inferior in quality and fetch very low price in the market. Since the pest population is high during dry months from December to May, pesticide application during this period is important. Four sprayings or dusting of insecticide during this period is recommended. Insecticide application can be skipped during rainy months of June and July. Three more sprayings are to be given during the period from August-November. Any of the following insecticides are recommended for thrips control.

EC formulations: Quinalphos 0.025%, fenthion 0.03%, phenthoate 0.03%, phosalone 0.05%, monocrotophos 0.025%, fenitrothion 0.05%, formothion 0.03%, dimethoate 0.05%.

Dust formulation: Quinalphos 1.5%, carbaryl 10%, phosalone 4% or phenthoate 4% each at 25 kg/ha

Shoot/capsule borer (Conogethes punctiferalis)
It is a serious problem to cardamom growers of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. At the early stage of the crop, the caterpillars of this yellow coloured moth bore into the core of the aerial stem resulting in the death of central spindle, which appears as characteristic dead hearts.

At the time of flowering, when the caterpillars attack the panicles and spikes it may lead to flower shedding and drying up of the attacked portions. At a later stage of the crop, the caterpillars bore into the capsules, feed on the seeds and make them hollow. The presence of excreta at the region of attack indicates presence of the caterpillars in the pseudostem, inflorescence and pods.

Pest infestation is pronounced in three seasons viz. January-February, June and September-October.

Control

Late stages of larvae bore into the pseudostem and remain there. Insecticides sprayed at this time may not give adequate control of the pest. For an effective management of the pest, the insecticides have to be targeted on early stages of the larvae, which are usually present within 15-20 days after adult emergence in the field. Spraying fenthion 0.05% or monocrotophos 0.05% is recommended during the months of February-March and September-October.

Leaf eating caterpillars
There are 10 species of caterpillars feeding on cardamom leaves. Out of these, seven species are hairy and appear in large numbers during certain seasons causing extensive defoliation. For controlling the leaf caterpillars, mechanical collection and destruction and spraying of any contact insecticide are recommended.

Cardamom whitefly (Kanakarajiella [Dialeurodes] cardamomi)
It is a serious pest in cardamom growing tracts of Kerala. The adult is a small soft-bodied insect, about 2 mm long and having two pairs of white wings. The nymphs are elliptical and pale green. The nymphs secrete sticky honeydew, which drops on to lower leaves. On these, black sooty mould develops, which interrupts photosynthesis of the leaves.

Control

The flies are attracted towards yellow colour. So metal sheets painted yellow and coated with sticky materials, such as castor oil or poly-venyl butanol would serve as traps. By placing such yellow sticky traps between rows of cardamom plants, population of adults can be monitored and adults trapped to some extent. Nymphs are effectively controlled by spraying the lower surface of leaves with a mixture of neem oil (500 ml) and triton (500 ml) in 100 litre of water. Acephate 0.075% and triazophos 0.04% are equally effective. The spray may be repeated two or three times at 15 days interval.

Cardamom root grubs (Basilepta fulvicorne)
The grubs of a small, greenish blue beetle cause damage. The grubs are short, stout, pale white in colour and often assume a shape resembling 'C', which feeds on cardamom roots. The symptoms start as yellowing of leaves, which later result in the drying up and death of the plant

Control

Collect the beetle with hand nets or sticky traps at the time of mass emergence (March-April and August-September) and destroy. Early stages of the grub which are usually present in soil during May-June and September-October can be controlled either by drenching chlorpyriphos 0.04% @ 3-4 litre per clump or by applying phorate @ 2-4 g ai/ha 10-15 cm around the plant.

Cardamom scale (Aulacaspis sp.)
This scale insect is found on the lower surface of leaves, leaf sheath, panicles and fruit stalk. As a result of damage, capsules get shrivelled, panicles become dry and the leaves become yellow. The pest is mostly seen during summer months.

Control

Spray monocrotophos or fenthion @ 0.05 % during the peak season.

Nematodes (Meloidogyne sp.)
Root knot nematodes are the most common nematode species associated with cardamom plantations. Common symptoms are necrosis of leaf tips and margins, narrowing of leaves, thickening of veins, reduction of internodal length and consequent appearance of leaves as rosette. Roots branch heavily and galls appear on them. Plant becomes highly stunted.

Control

Frequent change of nursery beds will help to reduce nematode infection in nurseries. In case of infection in primary nurseries, application of carbofuran @ 80 g per 6 m2 bed and in secondary nurseries, application of carbofuran @ 200 g / 6 m2 bed will control the pest. In plantation, carbofuran @ 60-80 g/plant or 20-40 g of phorate with 300-500 g of neem cake per plant may be applied. Application may be repeated after three months.

Diseases
Katte or mosaic
This is a virus disease, which is transmitted by the banana aphid, Pentalonia nigronervosa. The symptoms consist of discontinuous stripes of light green colour running almost parallel to each other from the mid-rib to the margin of the leaves, which form a mosaic pattern. On young shoots, such stripes are seen on the leaf sheath also. The infected clumps will be smaller in size with fewer tillers.

Control

Eradication of the source of inoculum by destroying infected plants and destruction of the vector by insecticide application are effective. Regular application of insecticide against cardamom thrips controls the aphids also. Avoid using katte-infected rhizome for planting.

Destruction of plants showing symptoms of the disease should be done promptly once in two months. Removal of all alternate hosts of virus is also recommended.

Azhukal
This is a fungal disease caused by Phytophthora sp. occurring during the rainy season. It affects the leaves, tender shoots, panicles and capsules. On the infected leaves, water soaked lesions appear first and rotting and shedding of leaves along the veins occur thereafter. The infected capsules become dull greenish brown and decay. This emits a foul smell and subsequently shed. Infection spreads to the panicles also.

Control

Trashing and destruction of the infected parts should be done as a phytosanitary measure just prior to the onset of southwest monsoon. Remove the trash (dried leaves and leaf sheaths) from the basal region of the plant to the extent possible.
Spray the shoots with 1% Bordeaux mixture with adhesive (rosin soda or any other sticker) by the commencement of the monsoon and continue the spraying operation two or three times up to November-December according to the intensity of the disease and rainfall. Give a copious spray to the panicle with 1% Bordeaux mixture @ 3 l/plant during July-August when the disease intensity is maximum.

Trichoderma can be used along with cowdung for controlling this disease.

Clump rot or rhizome rot
This disease is caused by Pythium aphanidermatum, P. vexans, Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium oxysporum. The affected shoots become brittle and easily break off from the rhizome at the bulbous base.

Control

Drench with 0.2% copper oxychloride (2-3 litre per plant) and repeat this two times at monthly intervals.

As a bio-control measure, inoculate seedlings with native arbuscular mycorrhiza, Trichoderma and Pseudomonas fluorescens at the time of planting in the nursery and main field, and apply during pre-monsoon period in established plantations (see the chapter on biocontrol agents against plant pathogens).

Leaf blotch disease

The fungus Phaeodactylium venkatesanum causes this disease. The disease is characterized by the appearance of large blotches of irregular lesions with alternating shades of light and dark brown necrotic tissues. This is mainly observed on mature leaves. On the lower surface of the lesions ash coloured white superficial growth of the fungus appears during moist weather conditions.

Control

The fungicides, Bordeaux mixture (1%), mancozeb (0.3%) and carbendazim (0.1%) are effective in controlling the disease.

Chenthal disease
Chenthal disease is characterized by the appearance of rectangular linear reddish brown lesions mainly on the lower surface of the leaves. The lesions are clearly visible even on dried leaves. The incidence of the disease appears to be more severe in areas, which do not have proper shade. Even though Corynebacterium and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides have been isolated from the infected leaves, the pathogenicity of these organisms could not be established.

Control

Providing adequate shade is the only measure recommended pending confirmation of etiology of the disease.

Waiting period of insecticide / fungicide
Quinalphos 30 days
Monocrotophos 30 days
Mancozeb 30 days

CROP HUSBANDRY-SESAME CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-11-03T05:33:00.000-08:00

SESAME (Sesamum indicum)

Sesame grows in well-drained, sandy loam soils. Coarse sandy soils and soils of alkaline and saline nature are not suited for the crop.

Season

Lowland paddy field: December-April (third crop)
Uplands: August-December

Varieties

For upland cultivation use varieties with long duration of 100-110 days and for low land use varieties with duration of 80-99 days.

Sesame varieties

Kayamkulam-1 : Suitable for lowlands of Onattukara
Kayamkulam-2 (Thilothama) : Suitable for rice fallows in Onattukara, resistant to leaf spot disease
ACV-1 (Soma) : Pure line selection for summer fallows of Onattukara
ACV-2 (Surya) : Pure line selection suited for uplands
ACV-3 (Thilak): Pure line selection suited to summer fallows of Onattukara
Thilathara (CST 785 x B14) : Suitable for the summer rice fallows of Onattukara, oil 51.5%, duration 78 days
OMT-1165 :Suited to uplands of Onattukara (rabi season), oil 50.5%
Thilarani :Suited to summer rice fallows of Onattukara

Preparation of land and sowing

Prepare the soil into a fine tilth by ploughing 2-4 times and breaking the clods. Seed rate is 4-5 kg/ha. Broadcast seeds evenly, preferably mixed with sand 2-3 times its volume, to ensure uniform coverage. Work with harrow, followed by pressing with wooden plank so as to cover the seed in the soil.

Manuring

Apply manures and fertilizers at the following rates.

Cattle manure/compost 5 t/ha
N:P2O5:K2O 30:15:30 kg/ha

Apply cattle manure/compost as basal dressing and incorporate into the soil along with last ploughing. Apply fertilizers as basal dose when there is enough moisture in the soil. Urea is preferable to ammonium sulphate. Nitrogen may be applied in split doses, 75% as basal and the balance as foliar spray at 3% concentration, 20-35 days after sowing keeping the discharge rate at 500 l/ha.

Interculture

Aftercultivation of the crop may be done twice, first at 15 days and the next 25-35 days after sowing. When the plants are about 15 cm in height, thin the crop so as to give a spacing of 15-25 cm between plants.

Irrigation

Usually the crop is grown under rainfed conditions. When facilities are available, the crop may be irrigated to field capacity after thinning operation and thereafter at 15-20 days interval. Stop irrigation just before the pods begin to mature.
Surface irrigation at 3 cm depth during the critical stages, viz., 4-5 leaves, branching, flowering and pod formation will increase the yield by 35-52%. Two irrigations of 3 cm depth each in the vegetative phase (4-5 leaf stage or branching) and in reproductive phase (at flowering or pod formation) are the best, registering maximum yield and water use efficiency. In the case of single irrigation, it can be best given in the reproductive phase. In the tail end fields in command area, best use of the sparingly available water can be made for augmenting sesame production.

Plant protection

For control of leaf and pod caterpillar, remove affected leaves and shoots and dust with carbaryl 10%. For control of gall fly, give preventive spray with 0.2% carbaryl.
For control of leaf curl disease, remove and destroy disease affected sesame plants as well as the diseased collateral hosts like chilli, tomato and zinnia.
Remove plants affected with phyllody and destroy them. Do not use seeds from affected plants for sowing.

Harvesting

Harvest the crop, when the capsules turn yellowish by pulling out the plants. Harvest during the morning hours. Cut the root portion and stack the plants in bundles for 3-4 days when the leaves will fall off. Spread in the sun and beat with sticks to break open the capsules. Repeat this for 3 days. Preserve seeds collected during the first day for seed purposes. Clean and dry in sun for about 7 days before storing.

Storage of seeds

By keeping sesame seeds in polybags, tin bins, wooden receptacles or in earthen pots, the viability can be maintained for about one year. Admixture of seeds with ash will drastically reduce germination.

CROP HUSBANDRY-OIL PALM CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-10-26T07:22:00.000-07:00

OIL PALM (Elaeis guineensis)

Oil palm grows best in areas with a mean maximum temperature of 30-32 ºC and on an average of at least five hours of sunlight. It can be grown in areas, which receive well-distributed annual rainfall of 200 cm or more. However, it can tolerate two to four months of dry spell. The oil palm grows on wide range of tropical soils. The adult palms can withstand occasional waterlogging, but frequently waterlogged, extremely sandy and hard lateritic soils should be avoided.

Varieties

The only variety recommended for commercial cultivation is Tenera, which is a hybrid between Dura and Pisifera.

Nursery practices

The fruits are separated from the bunch and seeds are extracted by scraping off the exocarp and mesocarp with a knife, or by retting in water. The seeds are then dried by spreading them on concrete or wooden floors under shade for two days. Such seeds can be stored for 3-9 months at about 27 ºC without much reduction in viability.
Seeds are soaked in water for five days, changing the water daily. Thereafter, the seeds are spread out to dry for 24 hours. The dried seeds are put in polythene bags and placed in germinator maintained at a temperature of 40 ºC. After 80 days, the seeds are removed from polythene bags, soaked in water for 5 days changing the water daily and dried in the shade for two hours. The seeds are then put back into bags and kept in a cool place in order to maintain the moisture content. Germination commences in about 10-12 days. The percentage of germination obtainable by this method is 90-95.

Raising nursery

Polybags (preferably black) of 400-500 gauge measuring 40 x 35 cm are used. The bags are filled with topsoil and compost and are arranged at a spacing of 45 x 45 cm and one sprouted seed is dibbled per bag. A good mulching during summer is desirable. Watering the seedlings weekly thrice is recommended. A fertilizer mixture containing 15 g N, 15 g P2O5 and 6 g K2O at the rate of 8 g in five litres of water for 100 seedlings may be applied when the seedlings are two month and eight month old.

Planting

Oil palm is planted in the main field in triangular system at spacing of 9 m accommodating 140 palms per ha. Planting is preferably done at the onset of monsoon during May-June. The polythene bag is torn open and the entire ball of earth is buried in the pit (50 x 50 x 50 cm) and levelled.

Manuring

The following fertilizer schedule is considered satisfactory for oil palm.

N:P2O5:K2O g/palm/year
First year 400:200:400
Second year 800:400:800
Third year onwards 1200:600:1200
Mg application is necessary only if deficiency symptoms are noticed. Fertilizers are preferably applied in two equal split doses (May and September), within 2 m diameter around the palm and forked in. Supply of sufficient quantities of green leaf or compost is advantageous, especially where the soil is poor in organic matter.

Leaf pruning

Dead and diseased leaves and all inflorescences should be cut off regularly up to three years after planting. When the palms are yielding, judicious pruning to retain about 40 leaves on the crown is advocated. It is necessary to remove some of the leaves while harvesting. In such cases, care should be taken to avoid over pruning. In addition, all dead and excess leaves should be cut off and crown cleaned at least once in a year, usually during the dry season.

Pollination

Oil palm is a cross-pollinated crop. Assisted pollination is done to ensure fertilization of all female flowers. However, this is not necessary if the pollination weevil Elaedobius kamerunicus is introduced in the plantation. They congregate and multiply on male inflorescence during flower opening. The weevils also visit the female flowers and pollinate them effectively.

Harvesting

First harvest can be taken 3.5 to 4 years after planting. When a few ripe fruits are loose / fall off, the bunch is ready for harvesting. Processing over-ripe fruits reduces quantity and quality of oil.
A chisel is used for harvesting bunches from young palms. The stalk of the bunch is struck hard with the chisel to cut off and push the bunch out. When the palms become taller (from 10 year onwards) a harvesting hook has to be used. When the palms are too tall, it is necessary to climb the palms for harvesting.

Plant protection

Pests

Rhinoceros beetle

The pest causes severe damage to emerging fronds and spindle. The adult beetle feeds on the softer tissue of the rachis, resulting in snapping off of the fronds and spears at the feeding sites. Field sanitation and elimination of breeding sites are essential components of the pest management operation. This pest can be suppressed by using the virus Baculovirus oryctes.

Red palm weevil

This is a major pest of oil palm in India. These weevils lay their eggs at the cut end of petioles or other wounds. The emerging larvae tunnel into the crown and feed on the growing tissues. Palms infested by red palm weevil start wilting and leaves show gradually increasing chlorosis and fracture in strong winds. If detected early, treatment of affected palm with 0.2% solution of endosulfan or 1% carbaryl would save the palms.

Birds

Many birds such as the forest crow, the house crow and the common Indian myna cause severe damage to oil palm fruit bunches. These birds feed on the mesocarp of the oil palm fruits. The damage can be minimized by scaring the birds and covering the ripe bunch with wire net, 150 days after fruit set.

Diseases

Anthracnose

This disease occurs in the nursery. It is recognized by regular or irregular brown to black leaf blotches surrounded by yellow haloes, which develop along the margin, centre or tip of the leaves. It causes heavy seedling loss. The disease can be controlled by spraying mancozeb or captan at the rate of 200 g/100 litres of water. Copper fungicides should not be used because of the extreme susceptibility of oil palm seedlings to copper burn (scorching).

Spear rot

This is noticed to affect oil palms of all ages. The incidence is less than one per cent. Yellowing starts from tip of the innermost whorl of leaves. Small lesions occur at the distal portions of spear and rotting extends downwards. As the disease advances, new leaves become rudimentary and show rotting. General decline in vigour and production is then noticed. Occurrence of spear rot without yellowing has also been noticed. Distinguishable marginal yellowing of leaflets and sudden drying of leaves showing yellowing are other symptoms. Rouging of all the affected palms may be adopted to prevent further spread of the disease. In early stages of the disease, the affected portions of leaves may be removed and burnt.

Bunch failure

Sparse or no fruit set followed by complete drying or rotting of the affected bunches are the typical symptoms. The extent of incidence can be up to 20%. This malady is generally attributed to excess pruning, mutual shading, underpollination, moisture stress and unhygienic conditions. The situation can be improved by assisted pollination as well as by adopting hygienic measures like removal of infected bunches and dry male inflorescence.

Processing

For mature plantations not exceeding 40 ha, a hand-operated hydraulic press will be enough for extraction of oil. In the case of large-scale plantations, the hydraulic press will not be economical and as such, mechanically driven oil mills have to be established. The fruit bunches brought to the factory are first quartered by means of a chisel. They are then sterilized in steam or boiling water for 30-60 minutes. The objective of this process is to inactivate the fat splitting enzymes, which are present in the fruit, which may raise the free fatty acid content of the oil and also to soften the fruits for easy pounding. The sterilized fruits are stripped off from the bunch and then pounded. The pounded fruit mass is then reheated and squeezed using a hydraulic press. It is then boiled in a clarification drum where the sludge will deposit and pure oil float over the water. The oil is then drained out.

CROP HUSBANDRY-GROUNDNUT CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-10-26T07:14:00.000-07:00

GROUNDNUT (Arachis hypogaea)

Groundnut can be cultivated as a floor crop in coconut gardens, as an intercrop with tapioca and as a catch crop after second crop paddy with irrigation. The crop is grown best in sandy loam and loam soils.

Season

Rainfed: May-June to September-October
Irrigated: January to May

Varieties with Duration(in days)
TMV-2 (bunch type) 110
TMV-7 (bunch type) 110
TG-3 (bunch type) 100-110
TG-14 (bunch type) 105-115
Spanish Improved 100-110
Sneha (bunch type) Early
Snigtha (bunch type) Early

Note: TG-3, TMV-2 and TMV-7 are recommended as intercrops in coconut gardens.

Seeds and sowing
Pure Crop 100kg kernels/ha
Intercrop in coconut 80kg kernels/ha
Intercrop in tapioca 40-50kg kernels/ha

Plough the field three or four times into a fine tilth. Sow the seeds by dibbling in ploughed furrows at a spacing of 15 x 15 cm. For seed treatment the rhizobial culture is recommended.

Manuring
Cattle manure or compost 2 t/ha
Lime 1-1.5 t/ha
Fertilizers N:P2O5:K2O 10:75:75 kg/ha

Apply entire quantity of cattle manure or compost and recommended quantity of fertilizers as basal dressing and incorporate well into the soil. Apply lime at the time of flowering of the crop and mix with the soil by light hoeing or raking.

Irrigation and interculture

Irrigate the crop once in 7 days. Weed the crop 10-15 days after germination of seed by light hoeing. Give another light hoeing or raking at the time of application of lime. Do not disturb the soil after 45 days of sowing.

Plant protection

Red hairy caterpillar, termites and leaf miners are the major pests of groundnut. Against leaf miner apply any of the organophosphorus insecticides with contact action. Spraying carbaryl 0.15% controls red hairy caterpillars. Against ants / earwigs / termites damaging the pods, apply carbaryl 10% DP in soil at the time of seeding.
Tikka leaf spot disease infects both the rainfed and irrigated crops. Prophylactic spraying with Bordeaux mixture 1% before flowering will control the disease.

Harvesting

The crop will be ready for harvest when the leaves start yellowing and begin to dry up. Development of brown colour inside the pods also indicates maturity of the crop.

CROP HUSBANDRY-COCONUT CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-10-26T06:57:00.000-07:00

COCONUT (Cocos nucifera)

Coconut requires an equatorial climate with high humidity. The ideal mean annual temperature is 27ºC with 5-7º diurnal variation. The palm does not withstand prolonged spells of extreme variations. A well-distributed rainfall of 1300-2300 mm per annum is preferred.

Coconut is grown in different soil types such as laterite, coastal sandy, alluvial, and also in reclaimed soils of the marshy lowlands. It tolerates salinity and a wide range of pH (from 5.0-8.0).

The cultural practices have to be adopted to suit the varying climatic and soil conditions.

Selection of site

Select sites with deep (not less than 1.5 m depth) well drained soil. Avoid shallow soils with underlying hard rock, low-lying areas subject to water stagnation and heavy clayey soils.

Cultivars

1. West Coast Tall (WCT)
2. Lakshadweep Ordinary (Chandrakalpa)
3. Philippines Ordinary (Kerachandra)
4. Andaman Ordinary
5. Java
6. Cochin China
7. Kappadam
8. Komadan

Hybrids

1. Lakshaganga (Lakshadweep Ordinary x Gangabondam)
2. Anandaganga (Andaman Ordinary x Gangabondam)
3. Keraganga (West Coast Tall x Gangabondam)
4. Kerasankara (West Coast Tall x Chowghat Orange Dwarf)
5. Chandrasankara (Chowghat Orange Dwarf x West Coast Tall)
6. Kerasree (West Coast Tall x Malayan Yellow Dwarf)
7. Kerasoubaghya (WCT x SSA)
8. Chowghat Green Dwarf x West Coast Tall
9. Chandralaksha (Lakshadweep Ordinary x Chowghat Orange Dwarf)
Tender nut variety: Chowghat Orange Dwarf

Note:
(1). Hybrids Anandaganga, Keraganga and Kerasankara are recommended for general cultivation both under rainfed and irrigated conditions.
(2) Other hybrids especially Chandrasankara are recommended for ideal situations and where good management practices are adopted.
(3) Since the performance of Chandrasankara is markedly superior to that of WCT in root (wilt) affected areas, cultivation of Chandrasankara is preferred in such areas.
(4) Chandralaksha, Lakshaganga and Chandrakalpa are recommended for cultivation under drought prone areas.

Selection of mother palms

Select mother palms having the following characters:
1. Regular bearing habit and yielding not less than 80 nuts / annum.
2. Age 20 years or more (5 years after reaching full bearing capacity). If the mother palms are the progeny of elite planting material and gives consistently higher yields for a period of not less than 6 years, seed nuts can be collected from such palms. There is no need for insisting 20 years as minimum age for mother palms in such conditions.
3. More than 30 fully opened leaves with short strong petioles and wide leaf base firmly attached to the stem.
4. Bearing at least 12 bunches of nuts with strong bunch stalks.
5. Bearing nuts of medium size and oblong shape.
6. Husked nuts should weigh not less than 600 g.
7. Mean copra content of 150 g per nut or more.
Avoid palms which (i) have long, thin and pendulous inflorescence stalks (ii) produce long, narrow, small sized or barren nuts (iii) show shedding of immature nuts in large numbers and (iv) are grown under favourable environmental conditions.

Collection and storage of seed nuts

Collect mature nuts (above 11 month old) during the period from December to May. Lowering of bunches by means of ropes may be done when the palms are tall and ground is hard. Discard nuts, which show improper development or other undesirable features. Store seeds in shade for a minimum period of 60 days prior to sowing in nursery. For storing, arrange the seed nuts with the stalk-end up over an 8 cm layer of sand in a shed and cover with sand to prevent drying of nut water. Up to five layers of nuts can be arranged one over the other. The nuts can also be stored in plots, provided the soil is sandy and the ground is sufficiently shaded. In the case of nuts harvested in May, heap them in partial shade, till husk is well dried and then sow them in the nursery.

Selection and preparation of site for nursery

Nursery sites should be well drained with light textured soil and with adequate but not too much shade. In open areas, provide shade during summer. Prepare beds of 1.5 m width and of convenient length with 75 cm space between beds. In areas where drainage is poor, prepare raised beds.
Before planting, examine seed nuts and discard those without nut water and rotten kernels. Sow the nuts in the nursery after commencement of southwest monsoon during May-June.

Spacing of nuts

Plant the seed nuts at a spacing of 30 cm (between rows) x 30 cm (between nuts) with four or five rows per bed.

Method of planting seed nuts

Plant the seed nuts in the beds in trenches 25-30 cm deep and cover with soil so that top portion of husk alone is visible. The nuts may be planted either horizontally with the widest of the segments at the top or vertically with stalk-end up. Vertical planting is preferable on account of convenience in transporting and lesser risk of seedling injury.

Care and management of nursery

Provide protective fencing to the nursery if it is located in open area. If the soil is sandy, provide mulching immediately after the cessation of monsoon rain. Irrigate the nursery once in two days during summer months. Keep the nursery beds free of weeds by periodic weeding. If termite is noticed, remove soil in the affected area up to a depth of about 15 cm and dust soil and nuts with carbaryl or chlorpyrifos. Repeat if attack persists. Periodically spray the plants with 1% Bordeaux mixture or any other copper fungicide to prevent fungal infection.

Selection of seedlings

Remove seed nuts, which do not germinate within 6 months after sowing as well as those with dead sprouts. Select only good quality seedlings (9-12 months old) by a rigorous selection based on the following characteristics.

1. Early germination, rapid growth and seedling vigour.
2. Six to eight leaves for 10-12 month old seedlings and at least four leaves for 9 month old seedlings.
3. Collar girth of 10-12 cm.
4. Early splitting of leaves.

Note: The recovery of quality seedlings will be about 60-65%. Since early germination is one of the criteria for the selection of seedlings, the storing and sowing of seed nuts should be in lots rather than in a staggered manner.

Removal of seedlings

Remove seedlings from the nursery by lifting with spade and cutting the roots. Keep the seedlings in shade and do not expose to sun. Plant seedlings as early as possible after removal from nursery. Never allow lifting the seedlings from the soil by pulling the leaves or stem.

Preparation of land and planting of seedlings

The nature of preparation of land before planting depends upon topography of land, soil type and other environmental factors. On slopes and in areas of undulating terrain, prepare the land by contour terracing or bunding. In low-lying areas and rice fields, form mounds to a height of at least 1 m above water level. In reclaimed kayal areas, planting can be done on the field bunds.
The size of pits for planting would depend upon soil types and water table. In loamy soils with low water table, pit size of 1 x 1 x 1 m is recommended. In laterite soils with underlying rock, take larger pits of size 1.2 x 1.2 x 1.2 m. In sandy soils, the size of pits may be 0.75x 0.75 x 0.75 m. The pits may be filled up with topsoil to a height 60 cm below the ground level. In low lying lands, take shallow pits and as the plant grows, raise the ground level by adding silt and sand so as to cover the entire bole of the palm. The same procedure can be adopted when planting is done on mounds or bunds. Burial of two layers of husks in the floor of the pits will be useful for moisture conservation. The husk is to be buried in layers with concave surface facing upwards. After arranging each layer, sprinkle carbaryl 10% dust on the husk to prevent colonization by termites.

Note: In lateritic areas, common salt at the rate of 2 kg per pit may be applied on the floor of the pit to improve soil conditions. Common salt is to be applied about six months prior to planting.

Spacing

Spacing depends upon the planting system, soil type etc. In general, the following spacings are recommended under different systems in sandy and laterite soils. In lateritic gravelly soils, under rainfed conditions of north Kerala, a closer spacing to accommodate 250 palms per ha is more economical.

Table 18. Spacing for coconut
Planting system / Spacing / Approximate number of plants/ha
Triangular 7.6 m 198
Square 7.6 to 9 m 170-120
Single hedge 5 m in the rows 9 m between the rows 220
Double hedge 5 x 5 m in rows 9 m between pairs of rows 280

In the hedge system of planting, the rows should be aligned in north-south direction and the seedlings planted as in the triangular system.

Time of planting

Planting the seedlings during May, with the onset of pre-monsoon rains is ideal. Under assured irrigation, planting can be done during April also. In low-lying areas, plant the seedlings in September after the cessation of heavy rains.

Shading and irrigation

For the first two years from planting, irrigate @ 45 litres of water per seedling, once in 4 days, during dry summer months. Provide adequate shade to the transplanted seedlings.

Manuring young palms

For the first three years after planting under rainfed conditions, apply fertilizers in two split doses at the rates shown in Table 19. Fertilizer requirement of adult palms is given in Table 20.

Table 19. Fertilizer requirement of young palms in relation to that of adult palms

Time after planting

Time of application
April-June/ Sept-Oct.

(Proportion of adults palm dose)
3 months (1/10th of full dose) 1/10
1 year (1/3rd of full dose) 1/9 2/9
2 year (2/3rd of full dose) 2/9 4/9
3 year onwards (full dose) 3/9 6/9

Note: Under irrigated conditions, the fertilizers can be applied in 3-4 equal split doses. In the case of low lying areas, apply fertilizer after water table recedes in one single dose or in two split doses as conditions permit. In all types of soils that are low in organic matter content (except reclaimed clayey soils and alluvial soils), apply organic matter @ of 15-25 kg/palm/year during June-July from the second year of planting.

Weeding and interculture

Keep the pits free of weeds by periodical weeding. Remove the soil covering the collar of seedlings. As the seedlings grow and form stem, fill up the pits gradually by cutting the sides. Proper intercultivation provides control of weeds and creates soil mulch. Any tillage system (ploughing, digging, raking or forming mounds) that provides soil mulch and control weeds may be followed depending upon local conditions. For laterite, sandy and red sandy loam soils give two ploughings or diggings in May-June and September-October and one raking in January. In areas where surface run off is more, form mounds in September-October and level them in November-December.

Drought management in coconut gardens

Coconut produces nuts round the year. Therefore, adequate supply of water is essential for its unhindered growth. Soil moisture is essential for the absorption of nutrients by roots. Moisture stress leads to stunted growth, drooping of leaves, immature nut fall and decreased yield. Importance may be given on the following aspects so as to ward off stress:

1. Husk burial for moisture conservation

Burying of fresh or dried coconut husk around the palm is a desirable practice particularly for moisture retention. The husk can be buried either in linear trenches taken 3 m away from the trunk between rows of palms or in circular trenches taken around the palm at a distance of 2 m from the trunk. The trenches may be of 0.5 m width and depth. The husks are to be placed in layers with concave surface facing upwards and covered with soil. The beneficial effect of husk burial will last for about 5-7 years. Instead of husk, coconut pith can be buried @ 25 kg / palm / year.

2. Mulching

Mulching is an effective method of conserving soil moisture. Mulch the coconut basins with green / dry leaves at the close of northeast monsoon (October-November). Mulching also adds organic matter to the soil and reduces the soil temperature. Do not disturb soil in the coconut garden during summer months. In level lands, during rainy seasons excess water may be conserved in small trenches dug out in the plantation. In sloppy areas, land may be terraced and trenches dug across. This will facilitate maximum percolation of rainwater and water storage. For moisture conservation, lowermost 3-5 leaves may be cut and removed. Provide adequate shade for the transplanted seedlings for 1-2 years. To minimize the heat load on the stem, application of lime solution on the trunk up to a height of 2-3 m at the start of the summer season is recommended.

3. Green manure and cover crops

Green manure and cover crops recommended for cultivation in coconut gardens are:
(a) Green manure crops: Crotalaria juncea (sunn hemp), Tephrosia purpurea (kolinji), Indigofera hirsuta, Pueraria phaseoloides.
(b) Cover crops: Calapagonium muconoides, Mimosa invisa, Stylosanthes gracilis
(c) Shade-cum-green manure shrub: Tephrosia candida
Sow green manure and cover crop seeds during April-May with the onset of pre-monsoon rains. The green manure crops should be ploughed in and incorporated into the soil during August-September. This will increase the water holding capacity of soil. Calapagonium can be grown either as green manure or cover crop. Tephrosia is especially suited for planting around seedling pits for summer shade and as a source of green manure in the rainy season.

Manuring of adult palms
1. Under irrigated conditions, fertilizers can be applied in 3-4 equal split doses.
2. In the case of low-lying areas, apply fertilizers in one single dose after water table recedes or in two split doses as conditions permit.
3. The application of organic materials such as forest leaves, cattle manure, coir dust or coconut shredding at 10 kg per pit in the first three years and 15-25 kg thereafter will be useful to obtain better establishment of coconut palms in sandy soils and in coastal situations.
4. In situations where the available P2O5 status of the soil is more than 10 ppm, application of phosphatic fertilizers can be skipped for a few years until the status of P2O5 reaches 10 ppm.
5. For sandy and sandy loams of Onattukara and similar situations and also for hybrid palms grown in root (wilt) affected areas, apply 500 g N + 300 g P2O5 + 1000 g K2O along with 500 g MgSO4 / palm / year.
6. Application of MgSO4 to coconut palms earlier confined to root wilt affected areas is recommended for the whole state (ad hoc recommendation).
7. The N:P2O5:K2O recommendation given for high yielding palms is, in general, sufficient for palms yielding up to 100 nuts per year. For palms yielding more than 100 nuts per year, an additional dose of 10 g N, 5 g P2O5 and 15 g K2O may be supplied for every nut exceeding 100 nuts (ad hoc recommendation).
8. In laterite soils, 50% of the K2O requirement of coconut can be substituted by Na2O supplied in the form of sodium chloride.

Time, frequency and method of fertilizer application

Under rainfed conditions, apply fertilizers in two split doses, 1/3 at the time of early southwest monsoon showers in April-June and 2/3 in September-October.
Under irrigated conditions, apply fertilizers in three or four equal doses in April-May, August-September, December and February-March.
Apply lime or dolomite during April-May, magnesium sulphate during August-September and organic matter during June-July. For an adult palm 1 kg dolomite or 1 kg lime + 0.5 kg MgSO4 is required per annum.
Apply fertilizers and manures in circular basins at a radius of 2.0 m from the base of the palm and 10 cm deep, opened after the onset of southwest monsoon. Split doses can be applied with irrigation water in summer months.

Recycling of palm waste

Recycling of palm waste is very much beneficial especially for maintaining the availability status of micronutrients and trace elements. Palm wastes like coconut leaves, crown waste, dried spathes, husk etc. may be deposited in a small trench of convenient length, 0.5 m to 0.75 m wide and 0.3 to 0.5 m deep at a distance of 2-2.5 m away from the base of the trunk. Fill up this trench with the palm wastes along one side of the palm (say north) in one year, opposite side (south) in the next year, east in the third year and so on. This practice of organic recycling of waste has been found to improve the growth and productivity of the palms.

Intercropping and mixed cropping

Schedules for inter/mixed cropping may be drawn up based on the canopy size, age and spacing of palms. In general, palms in the age group of 8-25 years are not suitable for inter and mixed cropping. However, cereals and tapioca are recommended as intercrops in young coconut plantation up to 3-4 years. Since ginger and turmeric are shade tolerant crops with shallow roots, they can be intercropped in coconut garden even in the age group of 15-25 years. It ensures better land utilization, solar energy harvesting, efficient water use, utilization of soil nutrient resources, more returns and an insurance against crop failure. Under conditions of wider spacing i.e. beyond 7.6 m, intercropping is possible irrespective of the age of the palms.

The following crops are recommended as intercrops.

Cereals: Rice, maize

Legumes and pulses: Groundnut, horse gram, cowpea

Tubers: Tapioca, sweet potato, yams, colocasia

Spices and condiments: Ginger, turmeric, chilly, pepper, nutmeg, cinnamon, clove

Fruit plants: Banana, pineapple, papaya. (Banana variety Palayankodan is recommended in the reclaimed soils of Kuttanad. Three suckers per clump have to be retained).

Beverage crop: Cocoa

Fodder grasses: Hybrid Napier, guinea grass

In all cases, separate application of adequate fertilizers and manures to the individual crop is essential.

Crop cafeteria for multiple cropping in coconut garden

Perennials: Cocoa, nutmeg, pepper, clove, lemongrass and cinnamon.

Annuals:
(a) Kharif: Rice, maize, groundnut, ginger, turmeric, chilli, yams, colocasia, red gram, vegetables, sweet potato, tapioca, banana, pineapple, papaya and fodder grass.
(b) Rabi: Sesame, horse gram, red gram, vegetables, cowpea, sweet potato and banana.
(c) Summer: Vegetables

Irrigation

Irrigate the palms during summer months in basins around palms as shown below:

Note: In coastal sandy soils, seawater can be used for irrigation. In irrigated gardens, interruption of irrigation would lead to serious set back in yield and general condition of palms. Hence, when once started, irrigation should be continued regularly and systematically. In sandy loam soil, irrigating the crop with 500 litres of water through basin taken at 1.5 m radius at CPE value of 50 mm (approximate interval of 15 days) is most economical. Do not irrigate seedlings and very young palms with seawater.

Drip irrigation

In the traditional system of irrigation followed in coconut gardens such as flood irrigation, basin irrigation etc. irrigation efficiency is only 30 to 50 per cent due to considerable wastage of water. In addition, cost on inputs like labour and energy in adopting these systems are high. Scarcity of water and increasing cost of labour and energy are deterrents in adopting these traditional irrigation systems. Under these circumstances, drip irrigation is the most suitable system of irrigation to coconut. Some of the major advantages of drip irrigation are: it saves water, enhances plant growth and yield, saves energy and labour, most suited for soils having low water holding capacity and undulating terrain, reduces weed growth and improves efficiency of fertilizers. For coconut, generally, three to four drippers are given per palm. The water requirement for an adult palm is 40 to 50 litres per day.

D x T hybrid production

The following guidelines are suggested for large-scale production of D x T hybrid seedlings. Assisted pollination should be done to get maximum hybrid nut production. As far as possible use prepotent palms as parents in the hybridization programmes.

Selection of mother palms

Palms with the following phenotypic character combination may be selected for hybridization work.
1. Nuts without ridges and having yellow, orange or red colour.
2. Palms with overlapping female and male phases.
3. Small crown and canopy compared to that of tall palm.
4. Narrow stem without any bulging at the base with close leaf scars.

Hybridization

1. Use mixed pollen from identified tall palms.
2. Emasculate the inflorescence by cutting the male flowers with scissors and stripping if necessary within 5-7 days of opening the spathe.
3. Cloth bags made of very close mesh should be used for covering the inflorescence.
4. Hairy caterpillar larvae cause serious damage by boring into the female flowers and developing buttons through stigmatic ends. The damage is more serious under bagged conditions. Spraying 0.15% carbaryl suspension mixed with 1% fish oil soap or sandovit ensures protection from the larvae. Spraying may be done prior to pre-pollination bagging.
5. Dusting of pollen-talc mixture in 1:9 proportion using pollen dispensers is recommended.
6. Assisted pollination for at least 3-5 days on each inflorescence till last female flower becomes receptive and fully pollinated.
7. Remove bags after the seventh day of pollination of the last female flower.

Nursery

The nuts should be harvested before it is tree-ripe and sown immediately in the bed without storage. Nursery beds should be mulched or shaded and watered regularly and adequately.

Button shedding

The shedding of buttons in the coconut is attributed to the following reasons.
1. Pathological conditions
2. Attack of insect pests
3. Nutritional deficiencies
4. Soil and climatic variations
5. Defects in pollination and fertilization
6. Structural defects in the flower
7. Abortion of embryos
8. Limited capacity of the tree to bear fruits
9. Unfavourable conditions such as deficit of moisture, waterlogging and lack of aeration.
The causes of button shedding may be identified and appropriate remedial measures adopted.

Plant protection

Pests
Rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros)

Symptoms
The adult beetle bores into the unopened fronds and spathes. The attacked frond when fully opened shows characteristic triangular cuts.

Control

1. Provide field sanitation to prevent breeding of beetles.
2. Hook out the beetles from the attacked palms by using beetle hook.
3 The topmost three leaf axils around the spindle may be filled with any of the following mixtures as a prophylactic measure:
(a) Sevidol 8G 25 g + fine sand 200 g, which is to be done thrice in a year in April-May, September-October and December-January. (b) Naphthalene balls 10.5 g (approx. three balls) covered with fine sand, once in 45 days.
4. Treat manure pits and other possible breeding sites with 0.01% carbaryl on w/w basis. Treatment will have to be repeated every three months.
5. Release Baculovirus oryctes infected adults @ of 10-15 / ha to bring down the pest population.
6. Inoculation of breeding sites with entomopathogenic fungus Metarrhizium anisopliae (@ 5 x 1011 spores / ml) gives effective control.

Red palm weevil (Rhyncophorus ferrugineus)

Symptoms

The diagnostic symptoms are the presence of holes on the stem, oozing out of a viscous brown fluid and extrusion of chewed up fibrous matter through the hole, longitudinal splitting of leaf base and wilting of central shoot. Sometimes the gnawing sound produced by the feeding grubs inside will also be audible.

Control

1. Field sanitation should be given prime importance.
2. Avoid making steps or any other injury on the tree trunks to reduce the loci of infestation.
3. Leaf axil filling as suggested in the case of rhinoceros beetle will be useful against the red palm weevil also.
4. When green leaves are cut from the palms, stumps of not less than 120 cm may be left on the trees in order to prevent successful inward movement of the grubs through the cut end.
5. In attacked palms, observe for the bore- holes and seal them except the top most one. Through the top most hole, pour 1% carbaryl or 0.2% trichlorphon or 0.1% endosulfan suspension @ one litre per palm, using a funnel.
6. When the pest infestation is through the crown, clean the crown and slowly pour the insecticidal suspension.
7. As an alternative, apply 1% DDVP or aluminum phosphide (for limited use only) one or two tablets per palm as a curative measure.
8. Coconut log traps with fermenting toddy or pineapple or sugarcane activated with yeast or molasses can be set in coconut plantation to attract and trap the free floating population of red palm weevil. Incorporate any of the insecticide to each trap to kill the weevils trapped.
9. Use of pheromone trap for attracting and killing adult weevils @ one trap per 2 ha.

Leaf eating caterpillar (Opisina arenosella)

Symptoms

The caterpillar feeds on green matter from the lower leaf surface, remaining within galleries of silk and frass. The attack will be severe during summer months from January-May.

Control

1. As a prophylactic measure, the first affected leaves may be cut and burnt during the beginning of the summer season.
2. Arrange for the release of larval / pupal parasitoids, Goniozus nephantidis, Elasmus nephantidis (brown species) and Brachymeria nosatoi.
3. When infestation is very severe and if the biocontrol is not likely to be effective, spray the undersurface of the fronds with dichlorvos 0.02%, malathion 0.05%, quinalphos 0.05%, endosulfan 0.05% or phosalone 0.05%.
Note: Application of the insecticides should be followed by liberation of larval and pupal parasites from the 21st day.

Cockchafer beetle (Leucopholis coneophora)

Symptoms

The soil inhabiting white grubs cause damage to the roots of coconut palm. The attack is common in sandy tracts. The infested palms turn pale yellow and there will be considerable reduction in yield.

Control

1. Collection and destruction of adults during the monsoon period from adjacent vegetation (in the evening).
2. Plough or dig the infested soil synchronizing with pre-monsoon showers.
3. Treat the soil with phorate 10G @ 100 g/palm or drench with chlorpyrifos 0.04% suspension. The treatment should be given twice, first during April-May after the receipt of pre-monsoon showers and second during the month of September.
Note: Wherever possible, light traps may be set up to attract and trap adult beetles.

Coried bug (Paradasynus rostratus)

Symptoms

The attacked buttons become deformed with characteristic crevices on the husk below the perianth with gum exudations and the tender nuts become barren.

Control

Apply 0.1% carbaryl or endosulfan suspension on the newly opened inflorescence after the receptive phase of the female flowers and spray the entire crown excluding the leaves and older bunches.
Note: The insecticide may be applied according to the severity of infection in a need-based manner.

Coconut eriophyid mite (Aceria [Eriophyes] guerreronis)

Coconut eriophyid mite, a recently introduced pest is spreading at an alarming rate in Kerala. It is a microscopic worm like mite infesting young buttons colonizing under the perianth.

Symptoms

The earliest symptom on 2-3 month old buttons is pale yellow triangular patches seen below the perianth. Later, these patches become brown. Severely affected buttons may fall. As the buttons grow, brown patches lead to black necrotic lesions with longitudinal fissures on the husk. Uneven growth results in distortion and stunting of nuts leading to reduction in copra yield. In severe cases, the losses are compounded because the quality of fibre is reduced and distorted nuts increase the labour requirements for dehusking.

Management

1. Collect and destroy all the fallen buttons of the affected palm.
2. Apply 2% neem oil + garlic emulsion or commercial neem formulation azadirachtin 0.004% (Neemazal T/S 1% @ 4 ml per litre of water) or micronized wettable sulphur 0.4 % in the crown on young bunches. In large coconut plantations, dicofol 0.1% can be applied after taking adequate precautions. However, spraying of dicofol should be avoided in homesteads. When rocker sprayer is used 1.0 to 1.5 litres of spray fluid per palm is required. If a hand sprayer is used, the spray solution required may be about 500 to 750 ml. Spraying has to be done on second to seventh bunches from top avoiding unpollinated inflorescence. Care should be taken to see that spray fluid reaches the perianth region of third, fourth and fifth bunches since these bunches harbour maximum number of mites. Three rounds of spraying are recommended in a year viz., March-April before the onset of southwest monsoon, in August-September during the dry spell between the southwest and northeast monsoons and in December-January after the northeast monsoon so that all the emerging bunches in the vulnerable stage receive one round of spraying. Rational rotation of the above pesticides may be adopted to avoid chances of resistance.

Preparation of neem oil + garlic emulsion (2%)

To prepare 10 litres of 2% neem oil + garlic emulsion, 200 ml neem oil, 200 g garlic and 50 g ordinary bar soap are required. Slice the bar soap and dissolve in 500 ml lukewarm water. Grind 200 g of garlic and take the extract in 300 ml of water. Pour the 500 ml soap solution in 200 ml neem oil slowly and stir vigorously to get a good emulsion. Mix the garlic extract in the neem oil + soap emulsion. Dilute this 1 litre stock solution by adding 9 litres of water to get 10 litres of 2 % neem oil + garlic emulsion.
As per the recommendation of the National Level Steering Committee, a holistic approach has to be adopted in the management of the coconut eriophyid mite. Hence, in addition to the plant protection measures mentioned above, the following measures can be adopted:
1. Improving nutrient status by applying organic manure at the rate of 50 kg and neem cake 5 kg per palm per year. Also apply the recommended dose of fertilizers in two split applications.
2. Growing compatible intercrops / mixed crops.
3. Providing adequate irrigation.

Mealy bug

Symptoms

Mealy bugs infest the unopened heartleaf and inflorescence. As a result, the leaves become highly stunted, suppressed, deformed and present a crinkled appearance. It is often confused with the leaf rot symptoms. The affected inflorescences are malformed and do not open. Even if they open, they do not bear nuts.
Button mealy bugs colonize under the perianth lobes of tender nuts. Infested nuts harbouring gravid mealy bugs remain on the spadix, which serve as inoculum for further spread.

Control

Remove and destroy all dried up inflorescence and unproductive buttons. Apply non-residual phosphatic insecticides like dimethoate 0.1%, quinalphos 0.05 %, fenthion 0.1% at the site of infestation.
Neem garlic emulsion 2% applied on infested bunches checks button mealy bugs.

Rodents

Rats damage tender nuts by forming characteristic holes. Shed nuts can be seen at the base of the palm.

Control

1. Use warfarin-based wax blocks containing 0.025% active ingredient at intervals of three months for reducing rodent population.
2. Place wax blocks of 0.005% bromadiolone in coconut crown of the infested palms at 3 to 4 days interval till the bait is no more consumed.

Diseases

Phytophthora diseases

Phytophthora palmivora has been found to affect seedlings and adult palms causing bud rot and immature nut fall commonly known as mahali.

Bud rot

Symptoms

Palms of all age are liable to be attacked but normally young palms are more susceptible, particularly during monsoon when the temperature is low and humidity is very high. In seedlings, the spear leaf turns pale and comes off with a gentle pull. In adult palms, the first visible symptom is the colour change of the spear, which becomes pale and breaks at the base and hangs down. The tender leaf base and soft tissues of the crown rot into a slimy mass of decayed material emitting a foul smell. The rotting slowly progresses downwards, finally affecting the meristem and killing the palms. This is accompanied by drooping of successive leaves. Even then, nuts that are retained on the palm may grow to maturity. The disease proves fatal if not checked at the early stages, before damage of the bud.

Management

1. In early stages of the disease (when the heartleaf starts withering) cut and remove all affected tissues of the crown. Apply Bordeaux paste and protect it from rain till normal shoot emerges.
2. Burn all disease-affected tissues removed from the palm.
3. Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture on spindle leaves and crown of disease affected as well as neighbouring palms, as a prophylactic measure. Palms that are sensitive to copper containing fungicides can be protected by mancozeb. Small, perforated sachets containing 2 g of mancozeb may be tied to the top of leaf axil. When it rains, a small quantity of the fungicide is released from the sachets to the leaf base, thus protecting the palm.
4. Adopt control measures for rhinoceros beetle.
5. Provide adequate drainage in gardens.
6. Adopt proper spacing and avoid over crowding in bud rot prone gardens.

Mahali

Symptoms

Shedding of female flowers and immature nuts are the common symptoms of the disease. Lesions appear on the young fruits or buttons near the stalk, which later lead to the decay of the underlying tissues and endosperm.

Control

Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture or copper oxychloride preparation (0.5%) on the crown of palms, once before the monsoon and once or twice later on at intervals of 40 days.

Root (wilt) disease

Symptoms

The characteristic symptom is the flaccidity of leaflets. Yellowing of older leaves, necrosis of leaflets and deterioration and decay of root system are other salient features of the disease. The leaflets curve inwardly to produce ribbing so that the whole frond develops a cup like appearance. Abnormal shedding of buttons and immature nuts are also noticed.

Management

Coconut root (wilt) is a non-lethal debilitating disease and the affected palms survive for a long period giving a reasonably good yield. The root (wilt) affected palms are susceptible to diseases like leaf rot and pests like rhinoceros beetle and red palm weevil. So there is a chance of confusing the pests and disease symptom with the root (wilt) disease. Negligence on the management aspects aggravates the malady. Efficient management of palms suspected to be affected by coconut root (wilt) disease demands control of all pests and diseases and imparting natural resistance and health to the palms through proper manuring and agronomic practices. A package of management practices for the effective management of root (wilt) disease is given below:

1. Rogue out palms that are affected severely by root (wilt) and yield less than 10 nuts / palm / year and those, which have contracted the disease before flowering. Replant with disease tolerant material / high yielding hybrids (Chandrasankara).
2. Apply fertilizers for coconut palms in average management at the rate of 0.34 kg N, 0.17 kg P2O5 and 0.68 kg K2O / palm / year in the form of urea, rock phosphate and muriate of potash, respectively. For palms under good management, fertilizers may be given @ of 0.5 kg N, 0.32 kg P2O5 and 1.2 kg K2O / palm / year.
3. In addition to the above, apply 50 kg cattle manure or green manure and 1 kg of lime / palm / year. Magnesium may be supplied @ 500 g MgO per palm per year in the Onattukara region (sandy soil) and 100 g MgO in the remaining areas. The cheapest source of MgO is magnesite (MgCO3). The magnesium in magnesite is acid soluble. Hence it may be preferred in acid soils.
4. Growing green manure crops like sunn hemp, sesbania, cowpea and calapagonium in the coconut basin and their incorporation in situ is beneficial as the practice reduces the intensity of the root (wilt) and increases the nut yield. The ideal green manure crops for the sandy and alluvial soils are cowpea and sesbania, respectively.
5. Under rainfed conditions, apply fertilizers in two splits, 1/3rd at the time of early southwest monsoon and 2/3rd before the northeast monsoon. Under irrigated conditions apply fertilizers in three equal splits (April-May, August-September and December-January).
6. Apply fertilizers and manures in 10 cm deep circular basins at a radius of 2 m from the bole of the palm.
7. When the crop is grown under the bund and channel system, desilt the channel and strengthen the bunds during summer months.
8. Follow strictly all the prescribed prophylactic measures against leaf rot disease, red palm weevil, rhinoceros beetle etc. so as to ensure that the palms are not debilitated. To maintain the productivity of the palms, prophylactic measures are of great importance.

Leaf rot

Symptoms

The first symptom is the appearance of water-soaked brown lesions in the spear leaves of root-wilt affected palms. Gradually these spots enlarge and coalesce resulting in extensive rotting. As the leaf unfurls, the rotten portions of the lamina dry and get blown off in wind, giving a 'fan' shape to the leaves. Some times, the symptom becomes very acute and the spear fails to unfurl.
This disease is a fungal complex initiated predominantly by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Exserohilum rostratum and Fusarium spp.

Management

1. Remove the rotten portions from the spear and the two adjacent leaves.
2. Pour 300 ml of fungicidal solution at the base of the spear. This can be prepared by mixing hexaconazole 5 EC 2 ml or mancozeb 3 g in 300 ml water.
3. Treat the top two leaf axils with insecticide preparation. This can be prepared by mixing phorate 10 G / sevidol / carbaryl 20 g with 200 g sand.
4. Spray crowns and leaves with 1% Bordeaux mixture or 0.5% copper oxychloride formulations or 0.4% mancozeb in January, April-May and September. While spraying, care has to be taken to spray the spindle leaf.

Stem bleeding

Symptoms

Exudation of the reddish brown liquid through the growth cracks mostly at the basal part of the trunk and bleeding patches higher up in the trunk are characteristic symptoms. One or more lesions, lying close by, may coalesce to form large patches. The liquid that oozes out dries up and turns black. The tissues beneath the bleeding points decay and become yellowish. The lesions spread upwards as the disease progresses. In advanced stages, the leaf size reduces leading to reduction in crown size. The rate of leaf production slows down. The production of bunches is affected and nut shedding takes place. The trunk gradually tapers towards the apex. The progress of the disease is faster during July to November.

Causal organism

The fungus, Thielaviopsis paradoxa is the causal agent. Growth cracks on the trunk, severe summer followed by heavy down pour, water stagnation, imbalance in nutrition, excess salinity and stress can act as predisposing / aggravating factors.

Control

1. Chisel out completely the affected tissues and paint the wound with tridemorph 5%. Apply coal tar after 1-2 days.
2. Destroy the chiseled materials by burning. Avoid any mechanical injury to trunk.
3. Apply neem cake @ 5 kg per palm in the basin along with other organics.
4. Root feed with tridemorph 5%, thrice a year during April-May, September-October and January-February to prevent further spread of lesions.
5. Apply tridemorph @ 25 ml in 25 litre of water as soil drenching once in four months.

Grey blight

This is caused by the fungus Pestalotia palmarum.

Symptoms

Symptoms appear in the mature leaves of the outer whorl as yellow specks encircled by a greyish band which later become greyish white. The spots coalesce into irregular necrotic patches causing extensive leaf blight. In advanced stages, the tips and margins of the leaflets dry and shrivel giving a burnt appearance.

Control

Remove severely affected older leaves and burn. Spray the trees with 1% Bordeaux mixture or propiconazole 0.3%.

Tanjore wilt

Symptoms

This disease is of recent occurrence in many parts of Kerala, especially in the districts of Palakkad, Malappuram, Thrissur, Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram and Wayanad. Middle aged palms were seen fatally affected. The characteristic symptom of the disease is the rotting of the basal portion of the stem. The bark turns brittle and often gets peeled off in flakes, leaving open cracks and crevices. The internal tissues are discoloured and disintegrated, emitting a bad smell. Mild bleeding occurs on the basal region. The tissues on the bleeding spots are soft to touch. Extensive damage of the root system following root rotting has been observed. Ultimately the palm dies off.

Control

1. Apply organic manure @ 50 kg / palm.
2. Apply neem cake @ 5 kg / palm / year.
3. Reduce fertilizer application to one-fourth of the recommended dose.
4. Drench the basin with 40 litres of 1% Bordeaux mixture or tridemorph 0.1% or any other copper fungicide to soak soil up to 15 cm depth at quarterly intervals.
5. Root feed with tridemorph 2 ml mixed with 100 ml water at quarterly intervals.
6. Avoid flood irrigation in order to prevent the possible spread of the pathogen through soil.
7. Isolate the affected palm from the healthy ones by digging a trench of size 1 m deep and 50 cm wide, 1.5 m away from the bole of the infected palm.
8. Avoid growing leguminous crops in and around the garden.

Safe storage of copra

Copra obtained from commonly cultivated varieties / cultivars is attacked by various insect pests in store. Among these ham beetle, Necrobia rufipes and saw toothed grain beetle, Oryzaphilus surinamensis are of major importance, which can cause more than 15% loss to copra when stored for more than six months.
Following precautions are to be taken for the safe storage of copra for more than three months:
(1) Dry the produce to four per cent moisture content.
(2) Avoid heap storage, which causes maximum damage.
(3) Store copra in netted polythene bags or gunny bags.

CROP HUSBANDRY-SUGARCANE CULTIVATION PRACTICES IN KERALA

2008-10-26T06:50:00.000-07:00

SUGARCANE (Saccharum officinarum)

Sugarcane grows best in the tropical regions, receiving a rainfall of 750-1200 mm. Sugarcane grows well on medium heavy soils, but can also be raised on lighter soils and heavy clays, provided there is adequate irrigation. The soils should be well drained.

Season
The normal planting season is October-December. Delay in planting reduces cane yield. Planting should not be delayed beyond February in the plains. In hilly tracts where sugarcane is cultivated under rain fed conditions, planting should be done after abatement of heavy rains.

Varieties
Co Tl 88322 (Madhuri): Resistant to red rot disease
Co 92175: Suitable for drought prone situation
Co 740: For ratooning
Co 6907, Co 7405 and Cul 57/84 (Thirumadhuram): Red rot resistant, high sugar content
Cul 527/85 (Madhurima): Resistant to red rot, tolerant to drought and waterlogging
Co 88017 (Madhumathi): Resistant to red rot, tolerant to drought and waterlogging

Preparation of land
Plough the land thrice length-wise and breadth-wise and level properly. Prepare furrows 25 cm deep and 75 cm apart for short duration and 90 cm apart for medium duration varieties. In hilly tracts, prepare pits in rows along the contour at spacing of 30 cm in the row and 75 cm between the rows. For mid late varieties, an inter-row spacing of 75 cm is recommended.

Selection of setts
Select top ends of mature, healthy disease free canes up to 1/3 of total length and cut into setts of three eye buds. The seed rate is 40000-45000 setts per hectare.

Seed treatment
For control of fungus diseases like red rot, dip cut ends of setts in 0.25% solution of copper based fungicide.

Planting
Plant setts end to end in the furrow, with the eye buds facing sideways and cover with soil. In the pit system, plant 2-3 setts in each pit.

Manuring
Apply compost or cattle manure, 10 t/ha or pressmud 5 t/ha or dolomite 500 kg/ha or calcium carbonate 750 kg/ha. In addition, the following fertilizers as N:P2O5:K2O kg/ha are also recommended.

Pandalam and Thiruvalla areas: 165: 82.5: 82.5
Chittoor area: 225:75:75
Newly cleared forest areas: 115:75:90

Apply organic manures such as compost / cattle manure / pressmud as basal dose preferably in furrows and mix well with soil before planting.

Apply lime / dolomite / calcium carbonate in the field before final preparation of the land.

Apply N and K2O in two split doses, the first 45 days after planting and the second 90 days after planting along with earthing up. Do not apply N beyond 100 days after planting.

Apply entire dose of phosphorus as basal dressing.

Aftercultivation
The crop should be weeded twice on 45 and 90 days after planting before application of fertilizers. First weeding is done by digging on the ridges and by hand in the furrows. Care should be taken to see that the furrows are not filled up while digging so that tillering is not affected. At the time of second digging, the crop is partially earthed up to arrest formation of late shoots. With the commencement of the southwest monsoon, final earthing up should be done to prevent lodging. At this time, de-trashing is to be done to prevent the possible germination of auxillary buds and to reduce pest infestation. Prevent lodging either by twisting of trash or by propping.

Atrazin 2 kg ai/ha can be applied as a pre-emergent weedicide 3 days after planting.

Intercropping
Under irrigated conditions, intercropping with short duration pulse crop is recommended. In such cases, sow the pulse crop on the ridges one month in advance, so that the first inter-cultivation is not hindered. As a green manure, sunn hemp can also be raised on the ridges.

Irrigation
Irrigate the crop 8-10 times depending upon the availability of rains. In Chittoor area, more number of irrigations will be necessary. In early growth periods, irrigate the crop at more frequent intervals. However, avoid too much moisture and water stagnation especially during germination and early growth phases.

Plant protection

Pests
The important pests of sugarcane found in the state are early shoot borers, top shoot borers mealy bugs, white grubs, termites and rats.

Control
Use pest free setts for planting.
Adhere to clean cultivation.
Use traps or poison baiting for controlling rats.
Apply carbaryl 10% dust in the furrows to control termites and white grubs.

Diseases

Red rot
The most characteristic symptom of the disease is the drying up of the canes, which when split open will show characteristic red colouration of the internal tissues with horizontal white patches and the typical foul smell. The disease is mainly transmitted through infected setts and flowing water and can be checked only by prophylactic means which are given below:

1. Affected crop should be harvested as early as possible to prevent loss in yield and deterioration in quality and also to arrest further spread of the disease. The crop residues should be completely burnt after harvesting.
2. When infection is noticed in the field, the affected clumps should be uprooted and burnt promptly.
3. Infected crop should never be ratooned.
4. Water should not be let into a healthy crop from diseased areas and as far as possible, the field may be kept free of standing water by providing drainage channels.
5. In severely affected areas sugarcane should not be cultivated at least for one season during which paddy and tapioca can be cultivated.
6. Seed setts should not be collected from diseased crops and from diseased areas.
7. Movement of seed materials from diseased to healthy areas should be strictly quarantined.
8. Cultivate red rot resistant varieties.
9. To control the fungal diseases, in general, dip the cut ends of setts in any of the copper based fungicide solution before planting.

Other transmissible diseases like grassy shoot, ratoon stunting etc. can be controlled by heat treatment and by implementing three tier seed programme.

Harvesting
Harvest the crop when it is fully mature. Delayed harvesting will reduce yield and recovery percentage.

Ratoon crop
Normally not more than two ratoon crops are recommended. Burn the trash after spreading uniformly in the area immediately after harvest of the previous crop. Stubble shaving should be done with a sharp spade wherever the canes are not cut close to the ground.

Gap filling
Fill the gaps at the rate of one three budded sett for every 50 cm gap.

Manuring of ratoon crop
Ratoon crop requires a higher dose of nitrogen than the plant crop. An extra dose of 25% nitrogen is recommended.
Manure the crop by 25th and 75th days after harvest of the previous crop. Entire quantity of phosphorus, half of nitrogen and potash are applied as the first dose and the remaining as the second dose. The first dose is incorporated into the soil by digging and the second dose is applied around the clump and earthing up is done. Weeding is also done at this time. Irrigation is given as in plant crop.